Abstract
We compiled available information of damages and other effects caused by the September 18, 2011, Sikkim–Nepal border earthquake from the print and electronic media, and interpreted them to obtain Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) at over 142 locations. These values are used to prepare the intensity map of the Sikkim earthquake. The map reveals several interesting features. Within the meizoseismal area, the most heavily damaged villages are concentrated toward the eastern edge of the inferred fault, consistent with eastern directivity. The intensities are amplified significantly in areas located along rivers, within deltas or on coastal alluvium such as mud flats and salt pans. We have also derived empirical relation between MMI and ground motion parameters using least square regression technique and compared it with the available relationships available for other regions of the world. Further, seismic intensity information available for historical earthquakes which have occurred in NE Himalayas along with present intensity has been utilized for developing attenuation relationship for NE India using two-step regression analyses. The derived attenuation relation is useful for assessing damage of a potential future earthquake (earthquake scenario-based planning purposes) for the northeast Himalaya region.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Algermissen ST (1986) Some problems in seismic hazard assessment. In: Proceedings of the XXXIV workshop on probabilistic earthquake hazards assessments. U.S. Geological Survey. Reston Virginia pp 35–52
Anderson JG (1978) On the attenuation of modified Mercalli intensity with distance in the United States. Bull Seismol Soc Am 68:1147–1179
Boatwright J, Thywissen K, Seekins L (2001) Correlation of ground motion and intensity for the 17 January 1994 Northridge California earthquake. Bull Seismol Soc Am 91:739–752
Cancani A (1904) Sur L’ Emploid’une Double Echelle Seismic Des Intensities Empirical Et Absolute. J Beritrigae Zur Geophysik 2:281–283
Chakraborty I, Ghosh S, Bhattacharya D, Bora A (2012) Earthquake induced landslides in the Sikkim-Darjeeling Himalayas—An aftermath of the 18th September 2011 Sikkim earthquake. Geological Survey of India, Eastern region Kolkata
De R, Kayal JR (2004) Seismic activity at the MCT in Sikkim Himalaya. Tectonophysics 386:243–248
GSI (2000) Seismotectonic atlas of India and its environs. Geological Survey of India
Gupta I (1980) A note on the correlation of modified Mercalli intensity with peaks of far-field ground motion. Bull Seismol Soc Am 70:925–932
Gupta HK, Combs J (1978) Investigation of isoseismals for some large magnitude earthquakes in China. Bull Seismol Soc Am 68:193–204
Holt WE, Ni JF, Wallace TC, Haines AJ (1991) The active tectonics of the eastern himalayan syntaxis and surrounding regions. J Geophys Res 96:14595–14632
IMD Report (2012) A preliminary report on the earthquake (Mw, 6.8) of 18th September, 2011 in Sikkim–Nepal border region. www.imd.gov.in/section/nhac/dynamic/eq.pdf
Kaka S, Atkinson G (2004) Relationship between instrumental ground motion parameters and modified Mercalli intensity in eastern North America. Bull Seismol Soc Am 94:1728–1736
Khattri KN, Rogers AM, Perkins DM, Algermissen ST (1984) A seismic hazard map of India and adjacent area. Tectonophysics 108:93–134
King KW, Tarr AC, Carver DL, Williams RA, Worley DM (1990) Seismic ground response studies in Olympia, Washington and vicinity. Bull Seismol Soc Am 80:1057–1078
Linkimer L (2008) Relationship between peak ground acceleration and modified Mercalli intensity in Costa Rica. Rev Geol Am Cent 38:81–94
Mahajan AK, Gupta V, Thakur VC (2012) Macroseismic field observations of 18 September 2011 Sikkim earthquake. Nat Hazards. doi:10.1007/S11069:012-0170-0
Murphy JR, O’Brien LJ (1977) The correlation of peak ground acceleration amplitude with seismic intensity and other physical parameters. Bull Seismol Soc Am 67:877–915
NDMA Report (2012) 18 September 2011 Sikkim earthquake: post earthquake reconnaissance report. Prepared by Indrejeet Barua et al
Raghukanth STG, Lakshmi L, Kavitha B (2012) Estimation of Ground Motion during the 18th September 2011 Sikkim earthquake. Geomat Nat Hazard Risk 3(1):9–34
Rai DC, Mondal G, Singhal V, Parool N, Pradhan T, Mitra K (2012) Reconnaissance report of the M6.9 Sikkim (India–Nepal border) earthquake of September 18, 2011. Geomat Nat Hazard Risk 3(2):99–111
Rajendran K, Rajendran CP, Thulasiraman N, Andrews R, Sherpa N (2011) The 18 September 2011, North Sikkim earthquake. Curr Sci 101:1475–1479
Sbar LM, Dubios MS (1984) Attenuation of intensity for the 1887 Northern Sonara Mexico earthquake. Bull Seismol Soc Am 74(6):2613–2628
Stover CW, Coffman JL (1993) Seismicity of the United States, 1568–1989 (revised). US Geol Surv Prof Pap 1527
Szeliga W, Hough S, Martin S, Bilham R (2010) Intensity, Magnitude, Location, and attenuation in India for felt earthquakes since 1762. Bull Seismol Soc Am 100(2):570–584
Takada Y, Matsu’ura M (2004) A unified interpretation of vertical movement in Himalaya and horizontal deformation in Tibet on the basis of elastic and viscoelastic dislocation theory. Tectonophysics 383:105–131
Thakur VC, Mahajan AK, Gupta A (2012) Seismotectonics of 18 September 2011 Sikkim earthquake: a component of transcurrent deformation in eastern Himalaya Himalayan. Geology 33(1):89–96
Tselentis GA, Danciu L (2008) Empirical relationships between modified Mercalli intensity and engineering ground-motion parameters in Greece. Bull Seismol Soc Am 98(4):1863–1875
Wald DJ, Quintoriano V, Heaton TH, Kanamori H (1999) Relationship between peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity and modified Mercalli intensity in California. Earthq Spectr 15:557–564
WHO Situation Report (2011) Earthquake in Sikkim, India
William BJ, Boore DM (1981) Peak horizontal acceleration and velocity from Strong motion records including records from the 1979 Imperial Valley, California. Earthq Bull Seismol Soc Am 71(6):2011–2038
Wu Y, Teng T, Shin T, Hsiao N (2003) Relationship between peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity and intensity in Taiwan. Bull Seismol Soc Am 93:386–396
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India for support and encouragement. Authors highly acknowledged the IIT Kharagpur, IIT Roorkee and IMD, New Delhi for providing strong motion data.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Prajapati, S.K., Kumar, A., Chopra, S. et al. Intensity map of Mw 6.9 2011 Sikkim–Nepal border earthquake and its relationships with PGA: distance and magnitude. Nat Hazards 69, 1781–1801 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0776-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0776-x