Abstract
Loneliness and depressive symptoms are distinct, but partly overlapping constructs. The current study examined whether clusters of loneliness and depressive symptoms could be identified through latent profile analysis in two samples of 417 and 1140 adolescents (48.40 and 48.68 % male, respectively), on average 12.47 and 12.81 years old, respectively. Four clusters were identified, (1) low on loneliness and depressive symptoms, (2) low on loneliness and high on depressive symptoms, (3) high on loneliness and low on depressive symptoms, and (4) high on loneliness and depressive symptoms. We found that these four clusters were differentially related to friendship quantity and quality as well as to happiness and self-esteem. The current study stresses the importance of assessing both loneliness and depressive symptoms, as their mutual relation within individuals is differentially related to various aspects of adjustment.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abdel-Khalek, A. M. (2006). Measuring happiness with a single-item scale. Social Behavior and Personality, 34, 139–150. doi:10.2224/sbp.2006.34.2.139.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B-Methodological, 57, 289–300.
Cacioppo, S., Grippo, A. J., London, S., Goossens, L., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2015). Loneliness: Clinical import and interventions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 238–249. doi:10.1177/1745691615570616.
Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., Ernst, J. M., Burleson, M., Berntson, G. G., Nouriani, B., & Spiegel, D. (2006a). Loneliness within a nomological net: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 1054–1085. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.007.
Cacioppo, J. T., Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley, L. C., & Thisted, R. A. (2006b). Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Psychology and Aging, 21, 140–151. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.140.
Cheng, H., & Furnham, A. (2002). Personality, peer relations, and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 327–339. doi:10.1006/jado.2002.0475.
Cheng, H., & Furnham, A. (2003). Personality, self-esteem, and demographic predictions of happiness and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 921–942. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00078-8.
Demir, M., & Urberg, K. A. (2004). Friendship and adjustment among adolescents. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88, 68–82. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.02.006.
Diamantopoulos, A., Sarstedt, M., Fuchs, C., Wilczynski, P., & Kaiser, S. (2012). Guidelines for choosing between multi-item and single-item scales for construct measurement: A predictive validity perspective. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40, 434–449. doi:10.1007/s11747-011-0300-3.
Everaert, J., Koster, E. H., & Derakshan, N. (2012). The combined cognitive bias hypothesis in depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 413–424. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.04.003.
George, T. P., & Hartmann, D. P. (1996). Friendship networks of unpopular, average, and popular children. Child Development, 67, 2301–2316. doi:10.2307/1131624.
Gere, J., & MacDonald, G. (2010). An update of the empirical case for the need to belong. Journal of Individual Psychology, 66, 93–115.
Hames, J. L., Hagan, C. R., & Joiner, T. E. (2013). Interpersonal processes in depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 355–377. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185553.
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability–transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.127.6.773.
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128–140. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.1.128.
Heinrich, L. M., & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 695–718. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002.
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 227–237. doi:10.1177/1745691614568352.
Hussong, A. M. (2000). Perceived peer context and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 391–415. doi:10.1207/Sjra1004_02.
Kohout, F. J., Berkman, L. F., Evans, D. A., & Cornoni-Huntley, J. (1993). Two shorter forms of the CES-D depression symptoms index. Journal of Aging and Health, 5, 179–193. doi:10.1177/089826439300500202.
Kovacs, M. (2003). Children’s depression inventory: technical manual. New York: Multi-health Systems.
Larson, R., Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Graef, R. (2014). Mood variability and the psycho-social adjustment of adolescents. In M. Csikszentmihalyi (Ed.), Applications of flow in human development and education (pp. 285–304). Dordrecht: Springer.
Lasgaard, M., Goossens, L., & Elklit, A. (2011). Loneliness, depressive symptomatology, and suicide ideation in adolescence: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 137–150. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9442-x.
Laursen, B. P., & Hoff, E. (2006). Person-centered and variable-centered approaches to longitudinal data. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52, 377–389. doi:10.1353/mpq.2006.0029.
Lodder, G. M., Scholte, R. H., Goossens, L., & Verhagen, M. (2015). Loneliness in early adolescence: Friendship quantity, friendship quality, and dyadic processes. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1070352.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803.
Lyubomirsky, S., Tkach, C., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2006). What are the differences between happiness and self-esteem? Social Indicators Research, 78, 363–404. doi:10.1007/s11205-005-0213-y.
Mahon, N. E., Yarcheski, A., Yarcheski, T. J., Cannella, B. L., & Hanks, M. M. (2006). A meta-analytic study of predictors for loneliness during adolescence. Nursing Research, 55, 446–447. doi:10.1097/00006199-200611000-00009.
Mann, M. M., Hosman, C. M., Schaalma, H. P., & de Vries, N. K. (2004). Self-esteem in a broad-spectrum approach for mental health promotion. Health Education Research, 19, 357–372. doi:10.1093/her/cyg041.
Marcoen, A., Goossens, L., & Caes, P. (1987). Loneliness in pre- through late adolescence: Exploring the contributions of a multidimensional approach. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 561–577. doi:10.1007/Bf02138821.
Meeus, W., van de Schoot, R., Keijsers, L., & Branje, S. (2012). Identity statuses as developmental trajectories: A five-wave longitudinal study in early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1008–1021. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9730-y.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Nagin, D. (2005). Group-based modeling of development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Nangle, D. W., Erdley, C. A., Newman, J. E., Mason, C. A., & Carpenter, E. M. (2003). Popularity, friendship quantity, and friendship quality: Interactive influences on children’s loneliness and depression. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 546–555. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3204_7.
Orth, U., Robins, R. W., & Roberts, B. W. (2008). Low self-esteem prospectively predicts depression in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 695–705. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.3.695.
Parker, J. G., Rubin, K. H., Erath, S. A., Wojslawowicz, J. C., & Buskirk, A. A. (2006). Peer relationships, child development, and adjustment: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (2nd ed., pp. 419–493). New York: Wiley.
Perlman, D., & Peplau, L. A. (1981). Toward a social psychology of loneliness. In R. Gillmour & S. Duck (Eds.), Personal relationships Vol. 3: Personal relationships in disorders (pp. 31–56). London: Academic Press.
Qualter, P., Vanhalst, J., Harris, R., Van Roekel, E., Lodder, G., Bangee, M., & Verhagen, M. (2015). Loneliness across the life span. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 250–264. doi:10.1177/1745691615568999.
Raja, S. N., McGee, R., & Stanton, W. R. (1992). Perceived attachments to parents and peers and psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 471–485. doi:10.1007/BF01537898.
Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single-item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 151–161. doi:10.1177/0146167201272002.
Robins, R. W., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2005). Self-esteem development across the lifespan. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 158–162. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00353.x.
Ryff, C. D., Love, G. D., Urry, H. L., Muller, D., Rosenkranz, M. A., Friedman, E. M., & Singer, B. (2006). Psychological well-being and ill-being: Do they have distinct or mirrored biological correlates? Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 75, 85–95. doi:10.1159/000090892.
Segrin, C., & Flora, J. (2000). Poor social skills are a vulnerability factor in the development of psychosocial problems. Human Communication Research, 26, 489–514. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2000.tb00766.x.
Sowislo, J. F., & Orth, U. (2013). Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 213–240. doi:10.1037/a0028931.
Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 83–110. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.83.
Terry, R. (2000). Recent advances in measurement theory and the use of sociometric techniques. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 88, 27–53. doi:10.1002/cd.23220008805.
van Dulmen, M. H., & Goossens, L. (2013). Loneliness trajectories. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 1247–1249. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.001.
Vanhalst, J., Klimstra, T. A., Luyckx, K., Scholte, R. H., Engels, R. C., & Goossens, L. (2012). The interplay of loneliness and depressive symptoms across adolescence: Exploring the role of personality traits. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 776–787. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9726-7.
Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., & Goossens, L. (2014). Experiencing loneliness in adolescence: A matter off individual characteristics, negative peer experiences, or both? Social Development, 23, 100–118. doi:10.1111/sode.12019.
Wang, J., & Wang, X. (2012). Mixture modeling. In J. Wang & X. Wang (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: Applications using Mplus (pp. 289–391). New York: Wiley.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported through Grant GOA/12/009 (‘STRATEGIES’ project) of the ‘BOF’ (Bijzonder Onderzoeksfonds, KU Leuven), by the Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (Ph.D. fellowship of the Research Foundation - Flanders) and by the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (451-12-038).
Authors’ Contributions
A.S. conceived of the study, participated in its design, performed the statistical analyses, interpreted the data, and drafted the manuscript. G.L. acquired data, was involved in concept and design of the study, assisted with and checked the analysis, and critically revised the manuscript. L.G. conceived of the study, and critically revised the manuscript. P.B. conceived of the study, and critically revised the manuscript. M.V. was involved in concept and design of the study, conceived of the study, and critically revised the manuscript. M.B. acquired data and critically revised the manuscript. R.S. was involved in concept and design of the study, participated in the interpretation of the data and critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Standard
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or National Research Committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Spithoven, A.W.M., Lodder, G.M.A., Goossens, L. et al. Adolescents’ Loneliness and Depression Associated with Friendship Experiences and Well-Being: A Person-Centered Approach. J Youth Adolescence 46, 429–441 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0478-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0478-2