Abstract
Positive psychological intervention (PPI), which aims at enhancing the quality of life and well-being, was developed and mainly been tested in the Western countries. It was rarely validated for Asians, who may value less on individualistic and positive well-being. This study examined the efficacy and mechanism of a 6-day online self-help PPI on improving eudaimonic well-being (flourishing) and reducing depressive symptoms among Chinese university students. In this two-armed randomized controlled trial, 100 university students were recruited online and randomly assigned to a 6-day PPI which involved writing about best possible self, or an active control group which involved writing about a past event. They completed pre- and post-intervention evaluation. Analysis of data using repeated measures ANOVA showed that PPI improved flourishing and reduced depressive symptoms. Results showed that positive affects and autonomy satisfaction fully mediated the effect of PPI on flourishing, while increased autonomy fully mediated the effect of PPI on depressive symptoms. Moreover, the effects on depressive symptoms and flourishing were independent of one another, indicating the general utility of PPI in improving positive well-being irrespective of change in depressive symptoms. These findings add novel support that increased autonomy satisfaction is an active ingredient that promotes intervention change and illustrated that online PPI might serve as a viable well-being intervention for Chinese university students.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andersen, E., Malmgren, J., Carter, W., & Patrick, W. (1994). Screening for depression in well older adults: Evaluation of a short form of the CES-D. American Journal of Preventive Medicine,10(2), 77–84.
Arbuckle, J. (2013). AMOS: Analysis of moment structures. The American Statistician,43(1), 66. https://doi.org/10.2307/2685178.
Arnett, J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist,55(5), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.55.5.469.
Arnett, J. (2007). Emerging adulthood: What is it, and what is it good for? Child Development Perspectives,1(2), 68–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00016.x.
Austenfeld, J., & Stanton, A. (2008). Writing about emotions versus goals: Effects on hostility and medical care utilization moderated by emotional approach coping processes. British Journal of Health Psychology,13(1), 35–38. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910707x250857.
Bagozzi, R., Wong, N., & Yi, Y. (1999). The role of culture and gender in the relationship between positive and negative affect. Cognition and Emotion,13(6), 641–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379023.
Bagozzi, R., & Yi, Youjae. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,16(1), 74–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/009207038801600107.
Bayram, N., & Bilgel, N. (2008). The prevalence and socio-demographic correlations of depression, anxiety and stress among a group of university students. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology,43(8), 667–672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-008-0345-x.
Boehm, J., Lyubomirsky, S., & Sheldon, K. (2011). A longitudinal experimental study comparing the effectiveness of happiness-enhancing strategies in Anglo Americans and Asian Americans. Cognition and Emotion,25(7), 1263–1272. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.541227.
Boehm, J., Lyubomirsky, S., & Sheldon, K. (2012). The role of need satisfying emotions in a positive activity intervention. Unpublished Raw Data.
Bolier, L., Haverman, M., Westerhof, G., Riper, H., Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2013). Positive psychology interventions: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. BMC Public Health,13(1), 119. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-119.
Boselie, J., Vancleef, L., Smeets, T., & Peters, M. (2014). Increasing optimism abolishes pain-induced impairments in executive task performance. Pain,155(2), 334–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2013.10.014.
Boudrenghien, G., Frenay, M., & Bourgeois, É. (2012). Unattainable educational goals: Disengagement, reengagement with alternative goals, and consequences for subjective well-being. Revue Européenne De Psychologie Appliquée/European Review of Applied Psychology,62(3), 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erap.2012.04.002.
Catalino, L., & Fredrickson, B. (2011). A Tuesday in the life of a flourisher: The role of positive emotional reactivity in optimal mental health. Emotion,11(4), 938–950. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024889.
Chang, E. (1996). Cultural differences in optimism, pessimism, and coping: Predictors of subsequent adjustment in Asian American and Caucasian American college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology,43(1), 113–123. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0167.43.1.113.
Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W., Boone, L., Deci, E., Van der Kaap-Deeder, J., et al. (2014). Basic psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need strength across four cultures. Motivation and Emotion,39(2), 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9450-1.
Chen, L., Wang, L., Qiu, X., Yang, X., Qiao, Z., Yang, Y., et al. (2013). Depression among Chinese University Students: Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates. PLoS ONE,8(3), e58379. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058379.
Chirkov, V. (2005). Cultural context and psychological needs in Canada and Brazil: Testing a self-determination approach to the internalization of cultural practices, identity, and well-being. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,36(4), 423–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022105275960.
Chirkov, V., Ryan, R., Kim, Y., & Kaplan, U. (2003). Differentiating autonomy from individualism and independence: A self-determination theory perspective on internalization of cultural orientations and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,84(1), 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.84.1.97.
Chirkov, V., Ryan, R., & Sheldon, K. (2011). Human autonomy in cross-cultural context. Dordrecht: Springer.
Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Burlington: Elsevier Science.
Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2006). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies,9(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1.
Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne,49(3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801.
Delle Fave, A., & Bassi, M. (2009). The contribution of diversity to happiness research. The Journal of Positive Psychology,4(3), 205–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760902844319.
Delle Fave, A., Brdar, I., Freire, T., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Wissing, M. (2010). The eudaimonic and hedonic components of happiness: Qualitative and quantitative findings. Social Indicators Research,100(2), 185–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-010-9632-5.
Delle Fave, A., Massimini, F., & Bassi, M. (2011). Psychological selection and optimal experience across cultures. Dordrecht: Springer.
Diener, E., & Chan, M. (2011). Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being,3(1), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2010.01045.x.
Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., et al. (2009). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research,97(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y.
Disabato, D., Goodman, F., Kashdan, T., Short, J., & Jarden, A. (2016). Different types of well-being? A cross-cultural examination of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Psychological Assessment,28(5), 471–482. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000209.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Fastame, M., & Penna, M. (2013). Does social desirability confound the assessment of self-reported measures of well-being and metacognitive efficiency in young and older adults? Clinical Gerontologist,36(2), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2012.749319.
Ferrari, A., Norman, R., Freedman, G., Baxter, A., Pirkis, J., Harris, M., et al. (2014). The burden attributable to mental and substance use disorders as risk factors for suicide: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. PLoS ONE,9(4), e91936. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0091936.
Fredrickson, B. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist,56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.218.
Fredrickson, B. (2003). The value of positive emotions. American Scientist,91(4), 330. https://doi.org/10.1511/2003.4.330.
Fredrickson, B., Cohn, M., Coffey, K., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,95(5), 1045–1062. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013262.
Fredrickson, B., & Losada, M. (2005). Positive affect and the complex dynamics of human flourishing. American Psychologist,60(7), 678–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.60.7.678.
Fritz, M., Chin, D., & DeMarinis, V. (2008). Stressors, anxiety, acculturation and adjustment among international and North American students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,32(3), 244–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.01.001.
Garland, E., Farb, N., Goldin, P. R., & Fredrickson, B. (2015). Mindfulness broadens awareness and builds eudaimonic meaning: A process model of mindful positive emotion regulation. Psychological Inquiry,26(4), 293–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840x.2015.1064294.
GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators. (2015). Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. The Lancet,388(10053), 1545–1602. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6.
González, H., Vega, W., Williams, D., Tarraf, W., West, B., & Neighbors, H. (2010). Depression care in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry,67(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.168.
Gorlin, E., Lee, J., & Otto, M. (2017). A topographical map approach to representing treatment efficacy: A focus on positive psychology interventions. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy,47(1), 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2017.1342173.
Hanssen, M. M., Peters, M. L., Vlaeyen, J. W., Meevissen, Y. M., & Vancleef, L. M. Pain 2013;154(1):53–58. Epub 2012 Oct 18. (2013). The Spine Journal, 13(6), 717–718. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2013.04.014.
Hayes, A. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. New York: Guilford Publications.
Helliwell, J., Layard, R., & Sachs, J. (2017). World happiness report 2017. New York, NY: Sustainable Development Solutions Network.
Henderson, L., & Knight, T. (2012). Integrating the hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives to more comprehensively understand wellbeing and pathways to wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing,2(3), 196–221. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v2.i3.3.
Henderson, L., Knight, T., & Richardson, B. (2013). An exploration of the well-being benefits of hedonic and eudaimonic behaviour. The Journal Of Positive Psychology, 8(4), 322–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.803596.
Hicks, J., & King, L. (2007). Meaning in life and seeing the big picture: Positive affect and global focus. Cognition and Emotion,21(7), 1577–1584. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701347304.
Hicks, J., & King, L. (2009). Positive mood and social relatedness as information about meaning in life. The Journal of Positive Psychology,4(6), 471–482. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903271108.
Hong Kong Mental Health Council. (2016). Hong Kong Mental Health Index [Chinese Only]. https://www.jmhf.org/upload_files/journal/279/281.pdf. Retrieved 5 March 2017, from https://www.jmhf.org/upload_files/journal/279/281.pdf.
Howell, R., Kern, M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). Health benefits: Meta-analytically determining the impact of well-being on objective health outcomes. Health Psychology Review,1(1), 83–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437190701492486.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal,6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.
Huang, L. (2017). Applicability of the positive and negative affect scale in Chinese. Chinese Mental Health Journal,17(1), 54–56.
Huffman, J., DuBois, C., Healy, B., Boehm, J., Kashdan, T., Celano, C., et al. (2014). Feasibility and utility of positive psychology exercises for suicidal inpatients. General Hospital Psychiatry,36(1), 88–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2013.10.006.
Huta, V., & Ryan, R. (2009). Pursuing pleasure or virtue: The differential and overlapping well-being benefits of hedonic and eudaimonic motives. Journal of Happiness Studies,11(6), 735–762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9171-4.
Huta, V., & Waterman, A. (2013). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. Journal of Happiness Studies,15(6), 1425–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9485-0.
Iacobucci, D. (2010). Structural equations modeling: Fit Indices, sample size, and advanced topics. Journal of Consumer Psychology,20(1), 90–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2009.09.003.
Iacobucci, D., Saldanha, N., & Deng, X. (2007). A meditation on mediation: Evidence that structural equations models perform better than regressions. Journal of Consumer Psychology,17(2), 139–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1057-7408(07)70020-7.
Ibrahim, A., Kelly, S., Adams, C., & Glazebrook, C. (2013). A systematic review of studies of depression prevalence in university students. Journal of Psychiatric Research,47(3), 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.11.015.
Joshanloo, M. (2015). Revisiting the empirical distinction between hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of well-being using exploratory structural equation modeling. Journal of Happiness Studies,17(5), 2023–2036. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9683-z.
Kashdan, T., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. The Journal of Positive Psychology,3(4), 219–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760802303044.
Kenny, D., & McCoach, D. (2003). Effect of the number of variables on measures of fit in structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal,10(3), 333–351. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1003_1.
Keyes, C. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior,43(2), 207. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090197.
Keyes, C. (2006). Subjective well-being in mental health and human development research worldwide: An introduction. Social Indicators Research,77(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-005-5550-3.
Keyes, C. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving national mental health. American Psychologist,62(2), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.62.2.95.
Keyes, C., & Annas, J. (2009). Feeling good and functioning well: Distinctive concepts in ancient philosophy and contemporary science. The Journal of Positive Psychology,4(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760902844228.
Keyes, C., Dhingra, S., & Simoes, E. (2010). Change in level of positive mental health as a predictor of future risk of mental illness. American Journal of Public Health,100(12), 2366–2371. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2010.192245.
Keyes, C., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,82(6), 1007–1022. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.82.6.1007.
Keyes, C., Wissing, M., Potgieter, J., Temane, M., Kruger, A., & van Rooy, S. (2008). Evaluation of the mental health continuum-short form (MHC-SF) in setswana-speaking South Africans. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy,15(3), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.572.
King, L. (2001). The health benefits of writing about life goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,27(7), 798–807. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201277003.
King, L., Hicks, J., Krull, J., & Del Gaiso, A. (2006). Positive affect and the experience of meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,90(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.179.
Kroger, J., Martinussen, M., & Marcia, J. (2010). Identity status change during adolescence and young adulthood: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescence,33(5), 683–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.11.002.
Lamers, S., Bolier, L., Westerhof, G., Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2011). The impact of emotional well-being on long-term recovery and survival in physical illness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Behavioral Medicine,35(5), 538–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-011-9379-8.
Layous, K., Katherine Nelson, S., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). What is the optimal way to deliver a positive activity intervention? The case of writing about one’s best possible selves. Journal of Happiness Studies,14(2), 635–654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9346-2.
Leu, J., Wang, J., & Koo, K. (2011). Are positive emotions just as “positive” across cultures? Emotion,11(4), 994–999. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021332.
Little, T., Cunningham, W., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal,9(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem0902_1.
Lomas, T., & Ivtzan, I. (2015). Second wave positive psychology: Exploring the positive–negative dialectics of wellbeing. Journal of Happiness Studies,17(4), 1753–1768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9668-y.
Loveday, P., Lovell, G., & Jones, C. (2016). The best possible selves intervention: A review of the literature to evaluate efficacy and guide future research. Journal of Happiness Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9824-z.
Lu, L., Gilmour, R., & Kao, S. (2001). Cultural values and happiness: An east-west dialogue. The Journal of Social Psychology,141(4), 477–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540109600566.
Luyckx, K., Schwartz, S., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., & Goossens, L. (2010). The path from identity commitments to adjustment: Motivational underpinnings and mediating mechanisms. Journal of Counseling & Development,88(1), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2010.tb00150.x.
Luyckx, K., Vansteenkiste, M., Goossens, L., & Duriez, B. (2009). Basic need satisfaction and identity formation: Bridging self-determination theory and process-oriented identity research. Journal of Counseling Psychology,56(2), 276–288. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015349.
Lyons, M., Huebner, E., Hills, K., & Shinkareva, S. (2012). The dual-factor model of mental health. Canadian Journal of School Psychology,27(2), 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573512443669.
Lyubomirsky, S., Dickerhoof, R., Boehm, J., & Sheldon, K. (2011). Becoming happier takes both a will and a proper way: An experimental longitudinal intervention to boost well-being. Emotion,11(2), 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022575.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005a). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin,131(6), 803–855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Layous, K. (2013). How do simple positive activities increase well-being? Current Directions in Psychological Science,22(1), 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412469809.
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K., & Schkade, D. (2005b). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology,9(2), 111–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111.
Mackenzie, S., Wiegel, J., Mundt, M., Brown, D., Saewyc, E., Heiligenstein, E., et al. (2011). Depression and suicide ideation among students accessing campus health care. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,81(1), 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01077.x.
Mackinnon, A., Jorm, A., Christensen, H., Korten, A., Jacomb, P., & Rodgers, B. (1999). A short form of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule: evaluation of factorial validity and invariance across demographic variables in a community sample. Personality and Individual Differences,27(3), 405–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00251-7.
MacKinnon, D., Lockwood, C., Hoffman, J., West, S., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods,7(1), 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.83.
Maddalena, C., Saxey-Reese, R., & Barnes, E. (2013). Targeting writing interventions to emotional processing level: A factorial experimental design. Quality & Quantity,48(6), 2939–2962. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-013-9933-2.
Manthey, L., Vehreschild, V., & Renner, K. (2014). Effectiveness of two cognitive interventions promoting happiness with video-based online instructions. Journal of Happiness Studies,17(1), 319–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9596-2.
Martínez-Martí, M., Avia, M., & Hernández-Lloreda, M. (2010). The effects of counting blessings on subjective well-being: A gratitude intervention in a Spanish sample. The Spanish Journal of Psychology,13(02), 886–896. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1138741600002535.
Moskowitz, J., Carrico, A., Duncan, L., Cohn, M., Cheung, E., Batchelder, A., et al. (2017). Randomized controlled trial of a positive affect intervention for people newly diagnosed with HIV. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,85(5), 409–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000188.
Murray, C., & Lopez, A. (1997). Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990–2020: Global Burden of Disease Study. The Lancet,349(9064), 1498–1504. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(96)07492-2.
Nasser-Abu Alhija, F., & Wisenbaker, J. (2006). A Monte Carlo Study investigating the impact of item parceling strategies on parameter estimates and their standard errors in CFA. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal,13(2), 204–228. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1302_3.
Nickerson, C. (2017). No evidence for differential relations of hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being to gene expression: A comment on statistical problems in Fredrickson et al. (2013). Collabra: Psychology,3(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.81.
Niemiec, C., Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2009). The path taken: Consequences of attaining intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations in post-college life. Journal of Research in Personality,43(3), 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.09.001.
Oishi, S., Diener, E., Lucas, R., & Suh, E. (1999). Cross-cultural variations in predictors of life satisfaction: Perspectives from needs and values. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,25(8), 980–990. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672992511006.
Paradis, A., Reinherz, H., Giaconia, R., & Fitzmaurice, G. (2006). Major depression in the transition to adulthood. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,194(5), 318–323. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000217807.56978.5b.
Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the satisfaction with life scale. Psychological Assessment,5(2), 164–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.5.2.164.
Peters, M., Flink, I., Boersma, K., & Linton, S. (2010). Manipulating optimism: Can imagining a best possible self be used to increase positive future expectancies? The Journal of Positive Psychology,5(3), 204–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439761003790963.
Peters, M., Vieler, J., & Lautenbacher, S. (2015). Dispositional and induced optimism lead to attentional preference for faces displaying positive emotions: An eye-tracker study. The Journal of Positive Psychology,11(3), 258–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1048816.
Phillips, M., Zhang, J., Shi, Q., Song, Z., Ding, Z., Pang, S., et al. (2009). Prevalence, treatment, and associated disability of mental disorders in four provinces in China during 2001–05: An epidemiological survey. The Lancet,373(9680), 2041–2053. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(09)60660-7.
Preacher, K. J., & Coffman, D. L. (2006). Computing power and minimum sample size for RMSEA [Computer software]. Available from http://quantpsy.org.
Radloff, L. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement,1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306.
Rausch, J., Maxwell, S., & Kelley, K. (2003). Analytic methods for questions pertaining to a randomized pretest, posttest, follow-up design. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology,32(3), 467–486. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3203_15.
Renner, F., Schwarz, P., Peters, M., & Huibers, M. (2014). Effects of a best-possible-self mental imagery exercise on mood and dysfunctional attitudes. Psychiatry Research,215(1), 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.10.033.
Rucker, D., Preacher, K., Tormala, Z., & Petty, R. (2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass,5(6), 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00355.x.
Russell, D., Kahn, J., Spoth, R., & Altmaier, E. (1998). Analyzing data from experimental studies: A latent variable structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Counseling Psychology,45(1), 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.45.1.18.
Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist,55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68.
Ryan, R., Huta, V., & Deci, E. (2006). Living well: A self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies,9(1), 139–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9023-4.
Ryff, C. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.57.6.1069.
Schueller, S., & Parks, A. (2012). Disseminating self-help: Positive psychology exercises in an online trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research,14(3), e63. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.1850.
Schwartz, S., Beyers, W., Luyckx, K., Soenens, B., Zamboanga, B., Forthun, L., et al. (2010). Examining the light and dark sides of emerging adults’ identity: A study of identity status differences in positive and negative psychosocial functioning. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,40(7), 839–859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9606-6.
Schwartz, S., Côté, J., & Arnett, J. (2005). Identity and agency in emerging adulthood. Youth & Society,37(2), 201–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x05275965.
Seear, K., & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2012). Efficacy of positive psychology interventions to increase well-being: Examining the role of dispositional mindfulness. Social Indicators Research,114(3), 1125–1141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0193-7.
Selig, J., & Preacher, K. (2009). Mediation models for longitudinal data in developmental research. Research in Human Development,6(2–3), 144–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427600902911247.
Seligman, M., Steen, T., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist,60(5), 410–421. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.60.5.410.
Shapira, L., & Mongrain, M. (2010). The benefits of self-compassion and optimism exercises for individuals vulnerable to depression. The Journal of Positive Psychology,5(5), 377–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2010.516763.
Sheldon, K., Abad, N., Ferguson, Y., Gunz, A., Houser-Marko, L., Nichols, C., et al. (2009). Persistent pursuit of need-satisfying goals leads to increased happiness: A 6-month experimental longitudinal study. Motivation And Emotion,34(1), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-009-9153-1.
Sheldon, K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). How to increase and sustain positive emotion: The effects of expressing gratitude and visualizing best possible selves. The Journal of Positive Psychology,1(2), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760500510676.
Sideridis, G., Simos, P., Papanicolaou, A., & Fletcher, J. (2014). Using structural equation modeling to assess functional connectivity in the brain. Educational and Psychological Measurement,74(5), 733–758. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164414525397.
Sin, N., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology,65(5), 467–487. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20593.
Singal, A., Higgins, P., & Waljee, A. (2014). A primer on effectiveness and efficacy trials. Clinical And Translational Gastroenterology,5(1), e45–e45. https://doi.org/10.1038/ctg.2013.13.
Snyder, C., Harris, C., Anderson, J., Holleran, S., et al. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,60(4), 570–585. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.60.4.570.
Song, Y., Huang, Y., Liu, D., Kwan, J., Zhang, F., Sham, P., et al. (2008). Depression in college: depressive symptoms and personality factors in Beijing and Hong Kong college freshmen. Comprehensive Psychiatry,49(5), 496–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.02.005.
Steptoe, A., Ardle, J., Tsuda, A., & Tanaka, Y. (2007). Depressive symptoms, socio-economic background, sense of control, and cultural factors in University students from 23 countries. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine,14(2), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03004175.
Stewart-Brown, S., Evans, J., Patterson, J., Petersen, S., Doll, H., Balding, J., et al. (2000). The health of students in institutes of higher education: An important and neglected public health problem? Journal of Public Health,22(4), 492–499. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/22.4.492.
Tang, X., Duan, W., Wang, Z., & Liu, T. (2016). Psychometric evaluation of the simplified Chinese version of flourishing scale. Research on Social Work Practice,26(5), 591–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731514557832.
Trent, J., Lavelock, C., & King, L. (2013). Processing fluency, positive affect, and judgments of meaning in life. The Journal of Positive Psychology,8(2), 135–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.772220.
Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Luyckx, K. (2006). Autonomy and relatedness among Chinese Sojourners and applicants: Conflictual or independent predictors of well-being and adjustment? Motivation and Emotion,30(4), 273–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9041-x.
Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration,23(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359.
Vittersø, J., & Søholt, Y. (2011). Life satisfaction goes with pleasure and personal growth goes with interest: Further arguments for separating hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology,6(4), 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2011.584548.
Waterman, A., Schwartz, S., & Conti, R. (2006). The implications of two conceptions of happiness (hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia) for the understanding of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Happiness Studies,9(1), 41–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9020-7.
Watson, D., Clark, L., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.54.6.1063.
Webb, T., Joseph, J., Yardley, L., & Michie, S. (2010). Using the internet to promote health behavior change: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of theoretical basis, use of behavior change techniques, and mode of delivery on efficacy. Journal of Medical Internet Research,12(1), e4. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.1376.
Wolf, E., Harrington, K., Clark, S., & Miller, M. (2013). Sample size requirements for structural equation models. Educational and Psychological Measurement,73(6), 913–934. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164413495237.
Wood, A., & Joseph, S. (2010). The absence of positive psychological (eudemonic) well-being as a risk factor for depression: A ten year cohort study. Journal of Affective Disorders,122(3), 213–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.032.
World Health Organization. (2006). Constitution of the World Health Organization. Retrieved 9 July 2017, from http://www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf.
World Health Organization. (2017). Depression and other common mental disorders global health estimates. Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254610/WHO-MSD-MER-2017.2-eng.pdf;sequence=1.
Wrosch, C., Scheier, M., Miller, G., Schulz, R., & Carver, C. (2003). Adaptive self-regulation of unattainable goals: Goal disengagement, goal reengagement, and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,29(12), 1494–1508. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203256921.
Yamaguchi, A., Kim, M., & Akutsu, S. (2014). The effects of self-construals, self-criticism, and self-compassion on depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences,68, 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.013.
Yu, S., Lin, Y., & Hsu, W. (2011). Applying structural equation modeling to report psychometric properties of Chinese version 10-item CES-D depression scale. Quality & Quantity,47(3), 1511–1518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-011-9604-0.
Zuroff, D., Koestner, R., Moskowitz, D., McBride, C., Marshall, M., & Bagby, M. (2007). Autonomous motivation for therapy: A new common factor in brief treatments for depression. Psychotherapy Research,17(2), 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300600919380.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Auyeung, L., Mo, P.K.H. The Efficacy and Mechanism of Online Positive Psychological Intervention (PPI) on Improving Well-Being Among Chinese University Students: A Pilot Study of the Best Possible Self (BPS) Intervention. J Happiness Stud 20, 2525–2550 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0054-4
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0054-4