Abstract
Bryozoans are major carbonate producers in some ancient and Recent benthic environments, including parts of the Arctic Ocean. Seventy-six species of bryozoans from within the Arctic Circle have been studied using XRD to determine their carbonate mineralogies and the Mg content of the calcite. The majority of species were found to be calcitic, only four having bimineralic skeletons that combined calcite and aragonite, and none being entirely aragonitic. In almost all species, the calcite was of the low- (<4 mol% MgCO3) or intermediate-Mg (4–11.99 mol% MgCO3) varieties. Previous regional studies of bryozoan biomineralogy have found higher proportions of bimineralic and/or aragonitic species in New Zealand and the Mediterranean, with a greater number of calcitic species employing intermediate- and high-Mg calcite. The Antarctic bryozoan fauna, however, has a similar mineralogical composition to the Arctic. The lesser solubility of low-Mg calcite compared to both Mg calcite and aragonite in cold polar waters is most likely responsible for this latitudinal pattern. However, it is unknown to what extent environmental factors drive the pattern directly through eliciting an ecophenotypic response from the bryozoans concerned or the pattern reflects genetic adaptations by particular bryozoan clades.
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Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Caroline Kirk and Gordon Cressey for help with XRD and mineralogical data analysis. The authors would also like to thank Bjorn Berning and an anonymous reviewer for comments leading to an improved manuscript. The study has been completed thanks to the financial support to from the EU programmes BRYOARC and DYNARC, as well as a grant from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (NN304 270434) to PK.
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Appendix
Appendix
Mineralogy and mole percentage of Mg in the skeletons of the Arctic bryozoan species analysed for this study. All species belong to the order Cheilostomata except for those indicated by an asterisk which are Cyclostomata (n.a.—data not available).
Species name | Locality | Latitude | Longitude | Depth (m) | Aragonite % | Mol% MgCO3 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amphiblestrum trifolium (Wood, 1844) | Spitsbergen | 77°N | 15°E | n.a. | 0 | 4.47 |
Arctonula arctica (Sars, 1851) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 0 |
Bidenkapia spitsbergensis (Bidenkap, 1897) | Spitsbergen | 77°N | 15°E | n.a. | 0 | 1.46 |
Buffonellaria arctica (Berning and Kuklinski, 2008) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 12 | 0 | 7.44 |
Bugulopsis peachi (Busk, 1851) | Chukchi Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 3.41 |
Callopora craticula (Alder, 1856) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 0.1 |
Callopora craticula (Alder, 1856) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 0.51 |
Callopora smitti (Kluge, 1946) | Spitsbergen | 76°40′N | 15°40′E | n.a. | 0 | 3.82 |
Carbasea carbasea (Ellis and Solander, 1786) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 7.13 |
Cauloramphus sp. | Laptev Sea | 74°30.0′N | 137°05.0′E | 22 | 0 | 0.92 |
Cauloramphus intermedius (Kluge, 1962) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 4.26 |
Celleporina nordenskjoldi (Kluge, 1929) | Laptev Sea | 74°30.0′N | 137°05.0′E | 22 | 0 | 2.49 |
Celleporina surcularis (Packard, 1863)—base | Spitsbergen | 79°01.0′N | 11°31.8′E | ~200 | 0 | 4.84 |
Celleporina surcularis (Packard, 1863)—tip | Spitsbergen | 79°01.0′N | 11°31.8′E | ~200 | 0 | 3.92 |
Celleporella hyalina (Linnaeus, 1767) | Spitsbergen | 78°11′N | 15°08′E | 12 | 0 | 0 |
Celleporella hyalina (Linnaeus, 1767) | Greenland | 73°20′N | 54°20′W | 11–36 | 0 | 0 |
Celleporella hyalina (Linnaeus, 1767) | Greenland | 73°20′N | 54°20′W | 11–37 | 0 | 0 |
Celleporella hyalina (Linnaeus, 1767) | Greenland | 73°20′N | 54°20′W | 11–38 | 0 | 0 |
Cheilopora sincera (Smitt, 1867) | Laptev Sea | 74°24.5′N | 131°01.3′E | 30 | 0 | 3.78 |
Cheilopora sincera (Smitt, 1867) | Laptev Sea | 75°48.9′N | 134°23.2′E | 43 | 0 | 0.23 |
Cheilopora sincera (Smitt, 1867) | Laptev Sea | 74°30.0′N | 137°05.0′E | 22 | 0 | 1.16 |
Cribrilina annulata (Fabricius, 1780) | Northern Norway | 69°49′N | 19°00′E | 1 | 0 | 6.82 |
Cribrilina annulata (Fabricius, 1780) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 6.51 |
Cribrilina cryptooecium (Norman, 1903) | Northern Norway | 69°49′N | 19°00′E | 1 | 0 | 4.57 |
Cribrilina cryptooecium (Norman, 1903) | Northern Norway | 69°49′N | 19°00′E | 1 | 0 | 4.6 |
Cribrilina cryptooecium (Norman, 1903) | Northern Norway | 69°49′N | 19°00′E | 1 | 0 | 3.75 |
Cribrilina spitzbergensis (Norman, 1903) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 3.82 |
Cylindroporella tubulosa (Norman, 1868) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 4.98 |
Cylindroporella tubulosa (Norman, 1868) | Spitsbergen | 78°10′N | 14°40′E | ~100 | 0 | 4.09 |
Cylindroporella tubulosa (Norman, 1868) | Spitsbergen | 78°10′N | 14°40′E | ~100 | 0 | 3.34 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856) | Spitsbergen | 77°N | 15°E | n.a. | 0 | 6.45 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856) | Laptev Sea | 74°29.9′N | 139°41.3′E | 25 | 0 | 5.39 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856) | Laptev Sea | 74°18.3′N | 129°32.6′E | 44 | 0 | 0.68 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856)—base | Spitsbergen | 78°10′N | 14°40′E | ~100 | 0 | 3.89 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856)—tip | Spitsbergen | 78°10′N | 14°40′E | ~100 | 0 | 4.06 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856)—base | Spitsbergen | 77°N | 15°E | n.a. | 0 | 5.8 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856)—base | Spitsbergen | 77°N | 15°E | n.a. | 0 | 4.91 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856)—base | Laptev Sea | 74°30.0′N | 137°05.0′E | 22 | 0 | 3.48 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856)—tip | Spitsbergen | 77°N | 15°E | n.a. | 0 | 6.04 |
Cystisella saccata (Busk, 1856)—tip | Laptev Sea | 74°30.0′N | 137°05.0′E | 22 | 0 | 3.13 |
Dendrobeania fruticosa (Packard, 1863) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 5.32 |
Dendrobeania murrayana (Johnston, 1847) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 6 | 0 | 3.17 |
Doryporella spathulifera (Smitt, 1868) | Spitsbergen | 79°32′N | 18°46′E | 20 | 0 | 1.97 |
Einhornia arctica (Borg, 1931) | Spitsbergen | 79°03′N | 11°39′E | 10 | 0 | 4.47 |
Einhornia arctica (Borg, 1931) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 6 | 0 | 5.39 |
Escharella sp. | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 6 | 0 | 4.19 |
Escharella sp. | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 6 | 0 | 4.09 |
Escharoides jacksoni (Waters, 1900) | Laptev Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 4.33 |
Eucratea loricata (Linnaeus, 1758) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 6 | 0 | 6.38 |
Eucratea loricata (Linnaeus, 1758) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 6 | 0 | 6.31 |
Eucratea loricata (Linnaeus, 1758) | Laptev Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 5.9 |
Eucratea loricata (Linnaeus, 1758) | Laptev Sea | 73°29.9′N | 131°39.9′E | 25 | 0 | 3.82 |
Eucratea loricata (Linnaeus, 1758) | Laptev Sea | 74°29.9′N | 139°41.3′E | 25 | 0 | 2.42 |
Flustra nordenskjoldi (Kluge, 1929) | Bering Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 3.31 |
Flustra serrulata (Busk, 1878) | Laptev Sea | 75°48.9′N | 134°23.2′E | 43 | 0 | 5.97 |
Flustra serrulata (Busk, 1878) | Laptev Sea | 74°24.5′N | 131°01.3′E | 30 | 0 | 5.35 |
Flustra serrulata (Busk, 1878) | Laptev Sea | 75°18.3′N | 129°32.6′E | 44 | 0 | 3.13 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Spitsbergen | 78°11′N | 15°08′E | 12 | 0 | 1.39 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Spitsbergen | 78°11′N | 15°08′E | 12 | 0 | 1.36 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Spitsbergen | 78°11′N | 15°08′E | 12 | 0 | 1.74 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Spitsbergen | 76°56′N | 15°48′E | 6 | 0 | 5.05 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Greenland | 73°20′N | 54°20′W | 11–36 | 0 | 1.09 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Greenland | 73°20′N | 54°20′W | 11–36 | 0 | 0.68 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Greenland | 73°20′N | 54°20′W | 11–36 | 0 | 1.16 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Northern Norway | 69°49′N | 19°00′E | 1 | 0 | 5.35 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Northern Norway | 69°49′N | 19°00′E | 1 | 0 | 5.56 |
Harmeria scutulata (Busk, 1855) | Northern Norway | 69°49′N | 19°00′E | 1 | 0 | 6.41 |
*Heteropora pelliculata (Waters, 1879) | Bering Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 1.26 |
Hincksipora spinulifera (Hincks, 1889) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 6.96 |
Hincksipora spinulifera (Hincks, 1889) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 5.76 |
Hincksipora spinulifera (Hincks, 1889) | Spitsbergen | 79°32′N | 18°46′E | n.a. | 0 | 6.31 |
Hippodiplosia ussowi (Kluge, 1908) | Barents Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 5.9 |
Hippoporella hippopus (Smitt, 1867) | Spitsbergen | 79°32′N | 18°46′E | 20 | 0 | 6.48 |
Hippoporella hippopus (Smitt, 1867) | Spitsbergen | 78°10′N | 14°40′E | ~100 | 0 | 4.26 |
Hippoporella hippopus (Smitt, 1867) | Spitsbergen | 78°10′N | 14°40′E | ~100 | 0 | 4.5 |
Hippothoa arctica (Kluge, 1906) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 0 |
Hippothoa arctica (Kluge, 1906) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 0 |
Hippothoa expansa (Dawson, 1859) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 0.54 |
*Hornera lichenoides (Linneaus, 1758) | Spitsbergen | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 5.01 |
*Idmidronea atlantica (Forbes in Johnston, 1847) | Spitsbergen | 77°N | 15°E | n.a. | 0 | 3.31 |
Lepraliodes nordlandica (Nordgaard, 1905) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 10.37 | 4.84 |
Lepraliodes nordlandica (Nordgaard, 1905) | Spitsbergen | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 8.16 | 7.4 |
Lepraliella contigua (Smitt, 1868) | Spitsbergen | 79°32′N | 18°46′E | 20 | 0 | 6.82 |
*Lichenoporid sp. | Spitsbergen | 78°11′N | 15°08′E | 12 | 0 | 2.52 |
*Lichenoporid sp. | Spitsbergen | 78°11′N | 15°08′E | 12 | 0 | 4.09 |
*Lichenoporid sp. | Spitsbergen | 78°11′N | 15°08′E | 12 | 0 | 3.48 |
Microporella klugei (Kuklinski and Taylor, 2008) | Spitsbergen | 78°11′N | 15°08′E | 12 | 0 | 6.38 |
Microporella klugei (Kuklinski and Taylor, 2008) | Spitsbergen | 78°10′N | 14°40′E | ~100 | 0 | 3.78 |
Microporella klugei (Kuklinski and Taylor, 2008) | Spitsbergen | 78°10′N | 14°40′E | ~100 | 0 | 3.34 |
Microporella arctica (Norman, 1903) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′ | 10 | 0 | 4.3 |
Myriapora orientalis (Kluge, 1929) | Bering Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 0.75 |
Myriapora subgracilis (d’Orbigny, 1852)—base | Spitsbergen | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 4.16 |
Myriapora subgracilis (d’Orbigny, 1852)—tip | Spitsbergen | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 3.27 |
Myriozoella costata (Kluge, 1962) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 4.53 |
Myriozoella costata (Kluge, 1962) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 4.36 |
Myriozoella costata (Kluge, 1962) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 5.35 |
Myriozoella costata (Kluge, 1962) | Spitsbergen | 79°32′N | 18°46′E | 20 | 0 | 2.86 |
Myriozoella crustacea (Smitt, 1868) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 2.86 |
*Oncousoecia canadensis (Osburn, 1933) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 5.76 |
Pachyegis princeps (Norman, 1903) | Spitsbergen | 77°N | 15°E | n.a. | 7.21 | 8.87 |
Pachyegis princeps (Norman, 1903) | East-Spitsbergen | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 17.39 | 6.99 |
Pachyegis princeps (Norman, 1903) | Spitsbergen | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 8.91 | 6.82 |
Parasmittina “trispinosa” (Johnston, 1838) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 11°58′E | 10 | 10.57 ? | 6.79 |
Parasmittina “trispinosa” (Johnston, 1838) | Spitsbergen | 79°N | 11°E | n.a. | 0 | 4.47 |
Parasmittina “trispinosa” (Johnston, 1838) | Spitsbergen | 79°N | 11°E | n.a. | 0 | 5.53 |
Porella proboscidea (Hincks, 1888) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | n.a. | 0 | 1.63 |
Porella sp. | Spitsbergen | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 7.47 |
Posterula sarsi (Smitt, 1867)—base | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 8.7 |
Posterula sarsi (Smitt, 1867)—tip | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 5.56 |
Pseudoflustra birulai (Kluge, 1929) | Kara Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 4.53 |
Pseudoflustra solida (Stimpson, 1854) | Kara Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 3.82 |
Pseudoflustra solida (Stimpson, 1854) | Kara Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 4.67 |
Raymondcia bella (Busk, 1860) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 11.76 | 8.08 |
Raymondcia bella (Busk, 1860) | Spitsbergen | 79°32′N | 18°46′E | n.a. | 12.87 | 7.44 |
Raymondcia rigida (Lorenz, 1886) | Spitsbergen | 79°01.8′N | 11°49.8′E | 10 | 0 | 6.82 |
Raymondcia rigida (Lorenz, 1886) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 5.8 |
Raymondcia rigida (Lorenz, 1886) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 3.78 |
Reteporella beaniana (King, 1846) | Northern Norway | 71°N | 25°E | n.a. | 0 | 5.69 |
Reteporella cellulosa (Linneaus, 1767) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 4.7 |
Rhamphostomella costata (Lorenz, 1886) | Spitsbergen | 79°01.8′N | 11°49.8′E | 10 | 0 | 3.58 |
Rhamphostomella costata (Lorenz, 1886) | Spitsbergen | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 3.17 |
Rhamphostomella costata (Lorenz, 1886) | Greenland | 73°20′N | 54°20′W | 11–36 | 0 | 1.8 |
Rhamphostomella plicata (Smitt, 1868) | Spitsbergen | 77°N | 15°E | n.a. | 0 | 3.92 |
Schizoporella pachystega Kluge, 1929 | Spitsbergen | 78°10′N | 14°40′E | ~100 | 0 | 5.69 |
Schizoporella pachystega (Kluge, 1929) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 5.8 |
Schizoporella perforata (Kluge, 1952) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 4.98 |
Schizoporella stylifera (Levinsen, 1887) | Spitsbergen | 78°59′N | 10°58′E | 210 | 0 | 7.84 |
Scrupocellaria arctica (Busk, 1855) | Spitsbergen | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 3.41 |
Scrupocellaria orientalis (Kluge, 1955) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 2.93 |
Securiflustra securifrons (Pallas, 1766) | Spitsbergen | 79°01′N | 11°49′E | ~50 | 0 | 6.48 |
Semibugula birulai (Kluge, 1929) | Chukchi Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 0 |
Septentriopora karasi (Kuklinski and Taylor, 2006) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 4.57 |
Smittina minuscula (Smitt, 1868) | Spitsbergen | 79°03′N | 11°39′E | n.a. | 0 | 3.75 |
Smittina minuscula (Smitt, 1868) | Spitsbergen | 79°03′N | 11°39′E | n.a. | 0 | 2.66 |
Stomachetosella cruenta (Busk, 1854) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 6.86 |
Stomachetosella cruenta (Busk, 1854) | Spitsbergen | 76°57′N | 15°55′E | 12 | 0 | 3.54 |
Stomachetosella cruenta (Busk, 1854) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 5.11 |
Tegella arctica (d’Orbigny, 1853) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 4.43 |
Tegella arctica (d’Orbigny, 1853) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 0.98 |
Tegella arctica (d’Orbigny, 1853) | Greenland | 73°20′N | 54°20′W | 11–36 | 0 | 0 |
Tegella cf. unicornis (Fleming, 1828) | Laptev Sea | 74°29.8′N | 134°03.2′E | 30 | 0 | 0.44 |
Tegella cf. unicornis (Fleming, 1828) | Laptev Sea | 74°29.8′N | 134°03.2′E | 30 | 0 | 3.41 |
Tegella cf. unicornis (Fleming, 1828) | Laptev Sea | 74°29.9′N | 139°41.3′E | 25 | 0 | 2.35 |
Tricellaria ternata (Ellis and Solander, 1786) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 2.28 |
Tricellaria ternata (Ellis and Solander, 1786) | Spitsbergen | 78°59.5′N | 11°58.9′E | 10 | 0 | 3.03 |
Tricellaria ternata (Ellis and Solander, 1786) | Spitsbergen | 78°15′N | 13°55′E | n.a. | 0 | 3.85 |
*Tubulipora fructuosa (Gostilovskaya, 1955) | White Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 1.09 |
*Tubulipora soluta (Kluge, 1946) | Kara Sea | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 0 | 4.02 |
Umbonula littoralis (Hastings, 1944) | Northern Norway | 69°49′N | 19°00′E | 1 | 0 | 6.92 |
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Kuklinski, P., Taylor, P.D. Mineralogy of Arctic bryozoan skeletons in a global context. Facies 55, 489–500 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10347-009-0179-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10347-009-0179-3