Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Clinical and laboratory aspects of the diagnosis and management of cutaneous and subcutaneous infections caused by rapidly growing mycobacteria

  • Review
  • Published:
European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rapidly growing mycobacteria (RGM) are known to cause pulmonary, extra-pulmonary, systemic/disseminated, and cutaneous and subcutaneous infections. The erroneous detection of RGM that is based solely on microscopy, solid and liquid cultures, Bactec systems, and species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may produce misleading results. Thus, inappropriate therapeutic measures may be used in dermatologic settings, leading to increased numbers of skin deformity cases or recurrent infections. Molecular tools such as the sequence analyses of 16S rRNA, rpoB and hsp65 or PCR restriction enzyme analyses, and the alternate gene sequencing of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) gene, dnaJ, the 16S-23S rRNA internal transcribed spacers (ITS), secA, recA1, dnaK, and the 32-kDa protein gene have shown promising results in the detection of RGM species. PCR restriction enzyme analyses (PRA) work better than conventional methods at identifying species that are closely related. Recently introduced molecular tools such as matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), pyrosequencing, DNA chip technology, and Beacon probes–combined PCR probes have shown comparable results in the detection of various species of RGM. Closely related RGM species (e.g., Mycobacterium fortuitum, M. chelonae, and M. abscessus) must be clearly differentiated using accurate molecular techniques because their therapeutic responses are species-specific. Hence, this paper reviews the following aspects of RGM: (i) its sources, predisposing factors, clinical manifestations, and concomitant fungal infections; (ii) the risks of misdiagnoses in the management of RGM infections in dermatological settings; (iii) the diagnoses and outcomes of treatment responses in common and uncommon infections in immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients; (iv) conventional versus current molecular methods for the detection of RGM; (v) the basic principles of a promising MALDI-TOF MS, sampling protocol for cutaneous or subcutaneous lesions and its potential for the precise differentiation of M. fortuitum, M. chelonae, and M. abscessus; and (vi) improvements in RGM infection management as described in the recent 2011 Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines, including interpretation criteria of molecular methods and antimicrobial drug panels and their break points [minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs)], which have been highlighted for the initiation of antimicrobial therapy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Wang L, Noertjojo K, Elwood RK et al (2000) Tuberculosis among aboriginal and nonaboriginal persons in British Columbia. Can Respir J 7:151–157

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Moonan PK, Quitugua TN, Pogoda JM et al (2011) Does directly observed therapy (DOT) reduce drug resistant tuberculosis? BMC Public Health 11:19

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Saleeb P, Olivier KN (2010) Pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial disease: new insights into risk factors for susceptibility, epidemiology, and approaches to management in immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. Curr Infect Dis Rep 12:198–203

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Marras TK, Chedore P, Ying AM et al (2007) Isolation prevalence of pulmonary non-tuberculous mycobacteria in Ontario, 1997–2003. Thorax 62:661–666

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Orjuela D, Puerto G, Mejía G et al (2010) Cutaneous tuberculosis after mesotherapy: report of six cases. Biomedica 30(3):321–326

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Hamada M, Urabe K, Moroi Y et al (2004) Epidemiology of cutaneous tuberculosis in Japan: a retrospective study from 1906 to 2002. Int J Dermatol 43:727–731

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Lupi O, Madkan V, Tyring SK (2006) Tropical dermatology: bacterial tropical diseases. J Am Acad Dermatol 54(4):559–578

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Cook JL (2010) Nontuberculous mycobacteria: opportunistic environmental pathogens for predisposed hosts. Br Med Bull 96:45–59

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ Jr (2002) Clinical and taxonomic status of pathogenic nonpigmented or late-pigmenting rapidly growing mycobacteria. Clin Microbiol Rev 15:716–746

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Kirschner RA Jr, Parker BC, Falkinham JO 3rd (1992) Epidemiology of infection by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare, and Mycobacterium scrofulaceum in acid, brown-water swamps of the southeastern United States and their association with environmental variables. Am Rev Respir Dis 145:271–275

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Kirschner P, Kiekenbeck M, Meissner D et al (1992) Genetic heterogeneity within Mycobacterium fortuitum complex species: genotypic criteria for identification. J Clin Microbiol 30:2772–2775

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Wallace RJ Jr, Zhang Y, Wilson RW et al (2002) Presence of a single genotype of the newly described species Mycobacterium immunogenum in industrial metalworking fluids associated with hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Appl Environ Microbiol 68(11):5580–5584

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Githui WA (2002) Laboratory methods for diagnosis and detection of drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex with reference to developing countries: a review. East Afr Med J 79:242–248

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. De Groote MA, Huitt G (2006) Infections due to rapidly growing mycobacteria. Clin Infect Dis 42:1756–1763

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Simons S, van Ingen J, Hsueh PR et al (2011) Nontuberculous mycobacteria in respiratory tract infections, eastern Asia. Emerg Infect Dis 17:343–349

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Alcaide F, Esteban J (2010) Cutaneous and soft skin infections due to non-tuberculous mycobacteria. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 28:46–50

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Piersimoni C, Scarparo C (2009) Extrapulmonary infections associated with nontuberculous mycobacteria in immunocompetent persons. Emerg Infect Dis 15:1351–1358

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Uslan DZ, Kowalski TJ, Wengenack NL et al (2006) Skin and soft tissue infections due to rapidly growing mycobacteria: comparison of clinical features, treatment, and susceptibility. Arch Dermatol 142:1287–1292

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Dhurat R, Kothavade R, Mishra S et al (2012) Two case reports on M. fortuitum infection and a review. Unpublished data

  20. Smith MB, Schnadig VJ, Boyars MC et al (2001) Clinical and pathologic features of Mycobacterium fortuitum infections. An emerging pathogen in patients with AIDS. Am J Clin Pathol 116:225–232

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Ingram CW, Tanner DC, Durack DT et al (1993) Disseminated infection with rapidly growing mycobacteria. Clin Infect Dis 16:463–471

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Lee WJ, Kang SM, Sung H et al (2010) Non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections of the skin: a retrospective study of 29 cases. J Dermatol 37:965–972

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Wolinsky E (1992) Mycobacterial diseases other than tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 15:1–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Cooper JF, Lichtenstein MJ, Graham BS et al (1989) Mycobacterium chelonae: a cause of nodular skin lesions with a proclivity for renal transplant recipients. Am J Med 86:173–177

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Williams MM, Yakrus MA, Arduino MJ et al (2009) Structural analysis of biofilm formation by rapidly and slowly growing nontuberculous mycobacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 75:2091–2098

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Falkinham JO (2010) Impact of human activities on the ecology of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Future Microbiol 5:951–960

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Rodrigues C, Mehta A, Jha U et al (2001) Nosocomial Mycobacterium chelonae infection in laparoscopic surgery. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22(8):474–475

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Winthrop KL, Abrams M, Yakrus M et al (2002) An outbreak of mycobacterial furunculosis associated with footbaths at a nail salon. N Engl J Med 346:1366–1371

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Bland CS, Ireland JM, Lozano E et al (2005) Mycobacterial ecology of the Rio Grande. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:5719–5727

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Cook KL, Britt JS, Bolster CH (2010) Survival of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in biofilms on livestock watering trough materials. Vet Microbiol 141:103–109

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ Jr, Tichindelean C et al (2011) Five-year outbreak of community- and hospital-acquired Mycobacterium porcinum infections related to public water supplies. J Clin Microbiol 49:4231–4238

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Zhang Y, Zhang J, Fang C et al (2012) Mycobacterium litorale sp. nov., a rapidly growing mycobacterium from soil. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 62(Pt 5):1204–1207

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Chen TM, Castaneda M, Wanitphakdeedecha R et al (2009) Precautions with gentian violet: skin marking made sterile, effective, and economical. Am J Infect Control 37:244–246

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. El Gamal AA (2010) Biological importance of marine algae. Saudi Pharm J 18:1–25

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Cheung P-Y, Kinkle BK (2005) Changes in Mycobacterium spp. population structure and pyrene mineralization in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-amended soils. Soil Biol Biochem 37:1929–1937

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Leite CQ, Anno IS, Leite SR et al (2003) Isolation and identification of mycobacteria from livestock specimens and milk obtained in Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 98:319–323

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) Water safety in buildings. WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland. ISBN 978 92 4 154810 6

  38. Kreysig D (2001) Der Biofilm—Bildung, Eigenschaften und Wirkungen, published in Bioforum, GIT Verlag, Darmstadt, Germany, 24:40–43

  39. Exner M, Kramer A, Lajoie L et al (2005) Prevention and control of health care-associated waterborne infections in health care facilities. Am J Infect Control 33:S26–S40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Le Dantec C, Duguet JP, Montiel A et al (2002) Occurrence of mycobacteria in water treatment lines and in water distribution systems. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:5318–5325

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Williams MM, Chen TH, Keane T et al (2011) Point-of-use membrane filtration and hyperchlorination to prevent patient exposure to rapidly growing mycobacteria in the potable water supply of a skilled nursing facility. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 32:837–844

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Vaerewijck MJM, Huys G, Palomino JC et al (2005) Mycobacteria in drinking water distribution systems: ecology and significance for human health. FEMS Microbiol Rev 29:911–934

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Carson LA, Bland LA, Cusick LB et al (1988) Prevalence of nontuberculous mycobacteria in water supplies of hemodialysis centers. Appl Environ Microbiol 54:3122–3125

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Gomila M, Gascó J, Busquets A et al (2005) Identification of culturable bacteria present in haemodialysis water and fluid. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 52:101–114

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Svetlíková Z, Skovierová H, Niederweis M et al (2009) Role of porins in the susceptibility of Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium chelonae to aldehyde-based disinfectants and drugs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53:4015–4018

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Bolan G, Reingold AL, Carson LA et al (1985) Infections with Mycobacterium chelonei in patients receiving dialysis and using processed hemodialyzers. J Infect Dis 152:1013–1019

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Somily AM, Al-Anazi AR, Babay HA et al (2010) Mycobacterium chelonae complex bacteremia from a post-renal transplant patient: case report and literature review. Jpn J Infect Dis 63(1):61–64

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Adékambi T (2009) Mycobacterium mucogenicum group infections: a review. Clin Microbiol Infect 15:911–918

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Chetchotisakd P, Mootsikapun P, Anunnatsiri S et al (2000) Disseminated infection due to rapidly growing mycobacteria in immunocompetent hosts presenting with chronic lymphadenopathy: a previously unrecognized clinical entity. Clin Infect Dis 30:29–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Yamazaki Y, Danelishvili L, Wu M et al (2006) The ability to form biofilm influences Mycobacterium avium invasion and translocation of bronchial epithelial cells. Cell Microbiol 8:806–814

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Donlan RM (2001) Biofilms and device-associated infections. Emerg Infect Dis 7:277–281

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Griffith DE, Aksamit T, Brown-Elliott BA et al (2007) An official ATS/IDSA statement: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 175(4):367–416

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Rosales A, Salvador JT, Urdaneta G (2010) Laparoscopic kidney transplantation. Eur Urol 57(1):164–167

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Murillo J, Torres J, Bofill L et al (2000) Skin and wound infection by rapidly growing mycobacteria: an unexpected complication of liposuction and liposculpture. The Venezuelan Collaborative Infectious and Tropical Diseases Study Group. Arch Dermatol 136:1347–1352

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Phillips MS, von Reyn CF (2001) Nosocomial infections due to nontuberculous mycobacteria. Clin Infect Dis 33:1363–1374

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Kumar S, Joseph NM, Easow JM et al (2011) Multifocal keloids associated with Mycobacterium fortuitum following intralesional steroid therapy. J Lab Physicians 3:127–129

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Wongkitisophon P, Rattanakaemakorn P, Tanrattanakorn S et al (2011) Cutaneous Mycobacterium abscessus infection associated with mesotherapy injection. Case Rep Dermatol 3:37–41

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Weber DJ, Rutala WA (2006) Use of germicides in the home and the healthcare setting: is there a relationship between germicide use and antibiotic resistance? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 27:1107–1119

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Tiwari TS, Ray B, Jost KC Jr et al (2003) Forty years of disinfectant failure: outbreak of postinjection Mycobacterium abscessus infection caused by contamination of benzalkonium chloride. Clin Infect Dis 36:954–962

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Viana-Niero C, Lima KV, Lopes ML et al (2008) Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium massiliense and Mycobacterium bolletii in isolates collected from outbreaks of infections after laparoscopic surgeries and cosmetic procedures. J Clin Microbiol 46:850–855

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Torres R JR, Rios-Fabra A, Murillo J et al (1998) Injection site abscess due to the Mycobacterium fortuitum-chelonae complex in the immunocompetent host. Infect Dis Clin Pract 7:56–60

    Google Scholar 

  62. Al Soub H, Al-Maslamani E, Al-Maslamani M et al (2008) Mycobacterium fortuitum abdominal wall abscesses following liposuction. Indian J Plast Surg 41(1):58–61

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. van Dissel JT, Kuijper EJ (2009) Rapidly growing mycobacteria: emerging pathogens in cosmetic procedures of the skin. Clin Infect Dis 49:1365–1368

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Redbord KP, Shearer DA, Gloster H et al (2006) Atypical Mycobacterium furunculosis occurring after pedicures. J Am Acad Dermatol 54:520–524

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Sniezek PJ, Graham BS, Busch HB et al (2003) Rapidly growing mycobacterial infections after pedicures. Arch Dermatol 139:629–634

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Noe R, Cohen AL, Lederman E et al (2007) Skin disorders among construction workers following Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita: an outbreak investigation in New Orleans, Louisiana. Arch Dermatol 143:1393–1398

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Appelgren P, Farnebo F, Dotevall L et al (2008) Late-onset posttraumatic skin and soft-tissue infections caused by rapid-growing mycobacteria in tsunami survivors. Clin Infect Dis 47:e11–e16

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Duraipandian J, Rengasamy G, Madasamy B et al (2010) Subcutaneous aspergillosis with coexisting atypical mycobacterial infection. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 53(2):359–360

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Chetchotisakd P, Kiertiburanakul S, Mootsikapun P et al (2007) Disseminated nontuberculous mycobacterial infection in patients who are not infected with HIV in Thailand. Clin Infect Dis 45(4):421–427

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Güleç AT, Demirbilek M, Seçkin D et al (2003) Superficial fungal infections in 102 renal transplant recipients: a case–control study. J Am Acad Dermatol 49(2):187–192

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Ryu HW, Cho JW, Lee KS (2012) Pityriasis versicolor on penile shaft in a renal transplant recipient. Ann Dermatol 24(3):345–347

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Zorman JV, Zupanc TL, Parac Z et al (2010) Primary cutaneous cryptococcosis in a renal transplant recipient: case report. Mycoses 53(6):535–537

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Hsu HH, Chang YL, Chen JS et al (2006) An esophageal mass with coexistent Mycobacterium chelonae and Candida albicans infections in an immunocompetent adult. J Infect 52(3):e77–e79

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Brooks M (2012) Fungal meningitis outbreak larger than predicted. Medscape News Today. Available online at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/772517?src=sttwit

  75. Forbes BA, Sahm DF, Weissfeld AS (2007) Bailey & Scott’s diagnostic microbiology, 12th edn. Mosby Elsevier, St. Louis, pp 107–112

    Google Scholar 

  76. Kwon YH, Lee GY, Kim WS et al (2009) A case of skin and soft tissue infection caused by Mycobacterium abscessus. Ann Dermatol 21:84–87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Wang H, Jin P, Wu Q (2008) Disseminated cutaneous infection with Mycobacterium abscessus in a patient with a low CD4+ T cell count. Eur J Dermatol 18:337–340

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Ferringer T, Pride H, Tyler W (2008) Body piercing complicated by atypical mycobacterial infections. Pediatr Dermatol 25:219–222

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Jancin B (2010) Skin infections from mycobacteria present challenges. Dermatologist links recent patient outbreak to tattoo parlor in her area. Skin and Allergy News, Expert analysis from the annual congress of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. Available online at: http://www.skinandallergynews.com/news/medical-dermatology/single-article/eadv-skin-infections-from-mycobacteria-present-challenges/51e9991539.html

  80. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2001) Mycobacterium abscessus in healthcare settings. Available online at: http://www.cdc.gov/HAI/organisms/mycobacterium.html

  81. Morales P, Gil A, Santos M (2010) Mycobacterium abscessus infection in transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 42:3058–3060

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Taylor JL, Palmer SM (2006) Mycobacterium abscessus chest wall and pulmonary infection in a cystic fibrosis lung transplant recipient. J Heart Lung Transplant 25:985–988

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Regnier S, Cambau E, Meningaud JP et al (2009) Clinical management of rapidly growing mycobacterial cutaneous infections in patients after mesotherapy. Clin Infect Dis 49:1358–1364

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Al-Benwan K, Ahmad S, Mokaddas E et al (2010) Diagnosis of endocarditis caused by Mycobacterium abscessus. Ann Saudi Med 30:408–411

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Tsai HC, Kunin CM, Lee SS et al (2007) Fish gambler’s tenosynovitis caused by Mycobacterium marinum: environmental investigation of a fishing pond in Southern Taiwan. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 59:227–230

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Kang GC, Gan AW, Yam A et al (2010) Mycobacterium abscessus hand infections in immunocompetent fish handlers: case report. J Hand Surg Am 35:1142–1145

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Brantley JS, Readinger AL, Morris ES (2006) Cutaneous infection with Mycobacterium abscessus in a child. Pediatr Dermatol 23:128–131

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Falkinham JO 3rd (2009) Surrounded by mycobacteria: nontuberculous mycobacteria in the human environment. J Appl Microbiol 107:356–367

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Thorel M-F, Falkinham JO 3rd, Moreau RG (2004) Environmental mycobacteria from alpine and subalpine habitats. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 49:343–347

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Colombo RE, Olivier KN (2008) Diagnosis and treatment of infections caused by rapidly growing mycobacteria. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 29:577–588

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown-Elliott BA, Crist CJ et al (2002) Comparison of the in vitro activity of the glycylcycline tigecycline (formerly GAR-936) with those of tetracycline, minocycline, and doxycycline against isolates of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46:3164–3167

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Petrini B (2006) Mycobacterium abscessus: an emerging rapid-growing potential pathogen. APMIS 114:319–328

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Champney WS (2001) Bacterial ribosomal subunit synthesis: a novel antibiotic target. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 1:19–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Chambers HF (2003) Bactericidal vs. bacteriostatic antibiotic therapy: a clinical mini-review. Clin Updat Infect Dis 6:1–4

    Google Scholar 

  95. Vester B, Douthwaite S (2001) Macrolide resistance conferred by base substitutions in 23S rRNA. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45:1–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Del Grosso M, Northwood JG, Farrell DJ et al (2007) The macrolide resistance genes erm(B) and mef(E) are carried by Tn2010 in dual-gene Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates belonging to clonal complex CC271. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51:4184–4186

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Champney WS, Tober CL (2000) Specific inhibition of 50S ribosomal subunit formation in Staphylococcus aureus cells by 16-membered macrolide, lincosamide, and streptogramin B antibiotics. Curr Microbiol 41:126–135

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Goldman RC, Kadam SK (1989) Binding of novel macrolide structures to macrolides–lincosamides–streptogramin B-resistant ribosomes inhibits protein synthesis and bacterial growth. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 33:1058–1066

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Dytoc MT, Honish L, Shandro C et al (2005) Clinical, microbiological, and epidemiological findings of an outbreak of Mycobacterium abscessus hand-and-foot disease. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 53:39–45

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Nash KA, Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ Jr (2009) A novel gene, erm(41), confers inducible macrolide resistance to clinical isolates of Mycobacterium abscessus but is absent from Mycobacterium chelonae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53:1367–1376

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. da Costa AR, Lopes ML, Leão SC et al (2009) Molecular identification of rapidly growing mycobacteria isolates from pulmonary specimens of patients in the State of Pará, Amazon region, Brazil. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 65:358–364

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Winthrop KL, Albridge K, South D et al (2004) The clinical management and outcome of nail salon-acquired Mycobacterium fortuitum skin infection. Clin Infect Dis 38:38–44

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Quiñones C, Ramalle-Gómara E, Perucha M et al (2010) An outbreak of Mycobacterium fortuitum cutaneous infection associated with mesotherapy. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 24(5):604–606

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Brown TH (1985) The rapidly growing mycobacteria—Mycobacterium fortuitum and Mycobacterium chelonei. Infect Control 6:83–288

    Google Scholar 

  105. Difonzo EM, Campanile GL, Vanzi L et al (2009) Mesotherapy and cutaneous Mycobacterium fortuitum infection. Int J Dermatol 48:645–647

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Nagore E, Ramos P, Botella-Estrada R et al (2001) Cutaneous infection with Mycobacterium fortuitum after localized microinjections (mesotherapy) treated successfully with a triple drug regimen. Acta Derm Venereol 81:291–293

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Cornelius L, Reddix R, Burchett C et al (2007) Cluster of Mycobacterium fortuitum prosthetic joint infections. J Surg Orthop Adv 16:196–198

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Cheung I, Wilson A (2008) Mycobacterium fortuitum infection following total knee arthroplasty: a case report and literature review. Knee 15:61–63

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Sungkanuparph S, Sathapatayavongs B, Pracharktam R (2003) Rapidly growing mycobacterial infections: spectrum of diseases, antimicrobial susceptibility, pathology and treatment outcomes. J Med Assoc Thail 86:772–780

    Google Scholar 

  110. Wang SX, Yang CJ, Chen YC et al (2011) Septic arthritis caused by Mycobacterium fortuitum and Mycobacterium abscessus in a prosthetic knee joint: case report and review of literature. Intern Med 50:2227–2232

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Tazawa S, Marumo K, Higuchi D et al. (2006) Mycobacterium fortuitum infection caused by the organism in subcutaneous abscess mediated by central venous catheter. Kekkaku 81:609–612

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Zainal Muttakin AR, Tan AM (2006) Mycobacterium fortuitum catheter-related sepsis in acute leukaemia. Singapore Med J 47:543–545

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Buckley R, Cobb MW, Ghurani S (1997) Mycobacterium fortuitum infection occurring after a punch biopsy procedure. Pediatr Dermatol 14:290–292

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Nolan CM, Hashisaki PA, Dundas DF (1991) An outbreak of soft-tissue infections due to Mycobacterium fortuitum associated with electromyography. J Infect Dis 163:1150–1153

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Angeli K, Lacour JP, Mantoux F et al (2004) Mycobacterium fortuitum skin infection occurring after a facelift. Ann Dermatol Venereol 131:198–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Nguyen DQ, Righini C, Darouassi Y et al (2011) Nasal infection due to Mycobacterium fortuitum. Eur Ann Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Dis 128:197–199

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Régnier S, Martinez V, Veziris N et al (2008) Treatment of cutaneous infections due to Mycobacterium fortuitum: two cases. Ann Dermatol Venereol 135:591–595

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Swenson JM, Wallace RJ Jr, Silcox VA et al (1985) Antimicrobial susceptibility of five subgroups of Mycobacterium fortuitum and Mycobacterium chelonae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 28:807–811

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Brown BA, Wallace RJ Jr, Onyi GO et al (1992) Activities of four macrolides, including clarithromycin, against Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacterium chelonae, and M. chelonae-like organisms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 36:180–184

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown BA, Onyi GO (1991) Susceptibilities of Mycobacterium fortuitum biovar. fortuitum and the two subgroups of Mycobacterium chelonae to imipenem, cefmetazole, cefoxitin, and amoxicillin–clavulanic acid. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 35:773–775

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Patel JB, Leonard DGB, Pan X et al (2000) Sequence-based identification of Mycobacterium species using the MicroSeq 500 16S rDNA bacterial identification system. J Clin Microbiol 38:246–251

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Chang CY, Tsay RW, Lin LC et al (2009) Venous catheter-associated bacteremia caused by rapidly growing mycobacteria at a medical center in central Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 42:343–350

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Srivastava BK, Soni R, Patel JZ et al (2008) Oxazolidinone antibacterials and our experience. Anti-Infect Agents Med Chem 7:258–280

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE et al (2011) Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children: executive summary. Clin Infect Dis 52:285–292

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Girard D, Bergeron JM, Milisen WB et al (1993) Comparison of azithromycin, roxithromycin, and cephalexin penetration kinetics in early and mature abscesses. J Antimicrob Chemother 31:17–28

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Wallace RJ Jr, Swenson JM, Silcox VA et al (1983) Spectrum of disease due to rapidly growing mycobacteria. Rev Infect Dis 5:657–679

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Abshire R, Cockrum P, Crider J et al (2004) Topical antibacterial therapy for mycobacterial keratitis: potential for surgical prophylaxis and treatment. Clin Ther 26:191–196

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Chang MA, Jain S, Azar DT (2004) Infections following laser in situ keratomileusis: an integration of the published literature. Surv Ophthalmol 49:269–280

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Simmon KE, Pounder JI, Greene JN et al (2007) Identification of an emerging pathogen, Mycobacterium massiliense, by rpoB sequencing of clinical isolates collected in the United States. J Clin Microbiol 45:1978–1980

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Halpern J, Biswas A, Cadwgan A et al (2010) Disseminated cutaneous Mycobacterium chelonae infection in an immunocompetent host. Clin Exp Dermatol 35(3):269–271

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Panossian A, Cohen MJ, Posalski I (2011) Upper extremity Mycobacterium chelonae cutaneous infection. Plast Reconstr Surg 127:163e–165e

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Gordon MM, Wilson HE, Duthie FR et al (2002) When typical is atypical: mycobacterial infection mimicking cutaneous vasculitis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 41:685–690

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Bartralot R, Pujol RM, García-Patos V et al (2000) Cutaneous infections due to nontuberculous mycobacteria: histopathological review of 28 cases. Comparative study between lesions observed in immunosuppressed patients and normal hosts. J Cutan Pathol 27:124–129

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Ferreira O, Duarte AF, Baudrier T et al (2010) A cutaneous infection by Mycobacterium chelonae in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Dermatol Online J 16(4):3

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Drage LA, Ecker PM, Orenstein R et al (2010) An outbreak of Mycobacterium chelonae infections in tattoos. J Am Acad Dermatol 62:501–506

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Drouineau O, Rivault O, Le Roy F et al (2006) Cutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium chelonae in a hemodialysed patient. Nephrol Ther 2:136–139

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Adenis-Lamarre E, Kostrzewa E, Texier-Maugein J et al (2009) Cutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium chelonae during anti-TNF therapy. Ann Dermatol Venereol 136:811–814

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Jankovic M, Zmak L, Krajinovic V et al (2011) A fatal Mycobacterium chelonae infection in an immunosuppressed patient with systemic lupus erythematosus and concomitant Fahr’s syndrome. J Infect Chemother 17:264–267

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Kullavanijaya P, Rattana-Apiromyakij N, Sukonthapirom-Napattalung P et al (2003) Disseminated Mycobacterium chelonae cutaneous infection: recalcitrant to combined antibiotic therapy. J Dermatol 30:485–491

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Haas SR, Hodge MB, Duncan RA (2001) Cushing’s syndrome presenting as disseminated cutaneous Mycobacterium chelonae infection. Clin Infect Dis 33:e51–e53

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Cavusoglu C, Gurpinar T, Ecemis T (2012) Evaluation of antimicrobial susceptibilities of rapidly growing mycobacteria by Sensititre RAPMYCO panel. New Microbiol 35(1):73–76

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Shen GH, Wu BD, Hu ST et al (2010) High efficacy of clofazimine and its synergistic effect with amikacin against rapidly growing mycobacteria. Int J Antimicrob Agents 35:400–404

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Chopra S, Matsuyama K, Hutson C et al (2011) Identification of antimicrobial activity among FDA-approved drugs for combating Mycobacterium abscessus and Mycobacterium chelonae. J Antimicrob Chemother 66:1533–1536

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown BA, Onyi GO (1992) Skin, soft tissue, and bone infections due to Mycobacterium chelonae chelonae: importance of prior corticosteroid therapy, frequency of disseminated infections, and resistance to oral antimicrobials other than clarithromycin. J Infect Dis 166:405–412

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Tebas P, Sultan F, Wallace RJ Jr et al (1995) Rapid development of resistance to clarithromycin following monotherapy for disseminated Mycobacterium chelonae infection in a heart transplant patient. Clin Infect Dis 20:443–444

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Schneider P, Monsel G, Veziris N et al (2011) Successful treatment of nodular lymphangitis due to Mycobacterium chelonae in two immunosuppressed patients. Dermatol Online J 17:8

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Goldman J, Caron F, de Quatrebarbes J et al (2010) Infections from tattooing. Outbreak of Mycobacterium chelonae in France. BMJ 341:c5483

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2004) Mycobacterium chelonae infections associated with face lifts—New Jersey, 2002–2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53:192–194

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Rodríguez G, Ortegón M, Camargo D et al (1997) Iatrogenic Mycobacterium abscessus infection: histopathology of 71 patients. Br J Dermatol 137:214–218

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Schulz S, Kremer M, Cabras AD et al (2001) Molecular diagnosis of a Mycobacterium chelonae infection. Pathol Res Pract 197:123–126

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Cook SM, Bartos RE, Pierson CL et al (1994) Detection and characterization of atypical mycobacteria by the polymerase chain reaction. Diagn Mol Pathol 3:53–58

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Schulz S, Cabras AD, Kremer M et al (2005) Species identification of mycobacteria in paraffin-embedded tissues: frequent detection of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Mod Pathol 18:274–282

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Somoskovi A, Mester J, Hale YM et al (2002) Laboratory diagnosis of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Clin Chest Med 23:585–597

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Prado AC, Castillo PF (2004) Lay clinics and an epidemic outbreak of mycobacterium skin and soft-tissue infection. Plast Reconstr Surg 113:800–801

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. del Solar M, Salomón M, Bravo F et al (2005) Infección cutánea por micobacterias atípicas de crecimiento rápido (MACR) debido a mesoterapia cosmética. Reporte de casos y revisión de la literatura. Folia Dermatol Perú 16:127–135

    Google Scholar 

  156. Rivera-Olivero IA, Guevara A, Escalona A et al (2006) Infecciones en tejidos blandos por micobacterias no tuberculosas secundarias a mesoterapia. ¿Cuánto vale la belleza? Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clín 24:302–306

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Sañudo A, Vallejo F, Sierra M et al (2007) Nontuberculous mycobacteria infection after mesotherapy: preliminary report of 15 cases. Int J Dermatol 46:649–653

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Williamson JC, Miano TA, Morgan MR et al (2010) Fatal Mycobacterium abscessus endocarditis misidentified as Corynebacterium spp. Scand J Infect Dis 42:222–224

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Boltin D, Katzir M, Bugoslavsky V et al (2009) Corynebacterium striatum—a classic pathogen eluding diagnosis. Eur J Intern Med 20:e49–e52

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Paul J, Baigrie C, Parums DV (1992) Fatal case of disseminated infection with the turtle bacillus Mycobacterium chelonae. J Clin Pathol 45:528–530

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Gable AD, Marsee DK, Milner DA et al (2008) Suppurative inflammation with microabscess and pseudocyst formation is a characteristic histologic manifestation of cutaneous infections with rapid-growing Mycobacterium species. Am J Clin Pathol 130:514–517

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Salfinger M, Pfyffer GE (1994) The new diagnostic mycobacteriology laboratory. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 13:961–979

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Wright PW, Wallace RJ Jr, Wright NW et al (1998) Sensitivity of fluorochrome microscopy for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis versus nontuberculous mycobacteria. J Clin Microbiol 36:1046–1049

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Ebersole LL (1992) Acid-fast stain procedures. In: Isenberg HD (ed) Clinical microbiology procedures handbook, vol 1. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, pp 3.5.1–3.5.11

    Google Scholar 

  165. De Groote MA (2004) Disease resulting from contaminated equipment and invasive procedures. In: Pedley S, Bartram J, Rees G, Dufour A, Cotruvo J (eds) Pathogenic mycobacteria in water: a guide to public health consequences, monitoring and management. ISBN: 1 84339 059 0. World Health Organization, IWA Publishing, London, UK

  166. Adler H, Straub C, Frei R (2005) Comparison of BacT/ALERT 3D, Lowenstein–Jensen medium and Middlebrook 7H10/7H11 biplate for recovering mycobacteria from clinical specimens. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 24:499–500

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Alfa MJ, Manickam K, Sepehri S et al (2011) Evaluation of BacT/Alert 3D automated unit for detection of nontuberculous mycobacteria requiring incubation at 30 degrees C for optimal growth. J Clin Microbiol 49:2691–2693

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Han XY, Dé I, Jacobson KL (2007) Rapidly growing mycobacteria: clinical and microbiologic studies of 115 cases. Am J Clin Pathol 128:612–621

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Tarrand JJ, Guillot C, Wenglar M et al (1991) Clinical comparison of the resin-containing Bactec 26 plus and the Isolator 10 blood culturing systems. J Clin Microbiol 29:2245–2249

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Hale YM, Pfyffer GE, Salfinger M (2001) Laboratory diagnosis of mycobacterial infections: new tools and lessons learned. Clin Infect Dis 33:834–846

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Silcox VA, Good RC, Floyd MM (1981) Identification of clinically significant Mycobacterium fortuitum complex isolates. J Clin Microbiol 14:686–691

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Woods GL, Browm-Elliott BA, Conville PS et al (2011) Susceptibility testing of Mycobacteria, Nocardiae, and other aerobic actinomycetes; Approved Standard—Second edition, CLSI document M24-A2. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), Wayne, PA.. ISBN 1-56238-746-4, ISSN 0273-3099

  173. Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ Jr (2011) Mycobacterium: clinical and laboratory characteristics of rapidly growing mycobacteria. In: Murray PR (ed) Manual of clinical microbiology, vol. 1, 10th edn. ASM Press, Washington, pp 525–538

    Google Scholar 

  174. Euzéby J (2011) Notification that new names and new combinations have appeared in volume 60, part 12, of the IJSEM. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 61:477–478

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Adékambi T, Drancourt M (2004) Dissection of phylogenetic relationships among 19 rapidly growing Mycobacterium species by 16S rRNA, hsp65, sodA, recA and rpoB gene sequencing. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 54:2095–2105

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Tortoli E (2003) Impact of genotypic studies on mycobacterial taxonomy: the new mycobacteria of the 1990s. Clin Microbiol Rev 16:319–354

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Leao SC, Tortoli E, Viana-Niero C et al (2009) Characterization of mycobacteria from a major Brazilian outbreak suggests that revision of the taxonomic status of members of the Mycobacterium chelonae–M. abscessus group is needed. J Clin Microbiol 47:2691–2698

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Brown-Elliott BA (2011) Update on identification and susceptibility testing of rapidly growing Mycobacterium sp. ASM-2011, ppt presentation (ASM web page), New Orleans, LA

  179. Kusunoki S, Ezaki T (1992) Proposal of Mycobacterium peregrinum sp. nov., nom. rev., and elevation of Mycobacterium chelonae subsp. abscessus (Kubica et al.) to species status: Mycobacterium abscessus comb. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol 42:240–245

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Therese KL, Bartell J, Deepa P et al (2009) DNA sequencing by Microseq kit targeting 16S rRNA gene for species level identification of mycobacteria. Indian J Med Res 129:176–181

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Telenti A, Marchesi F, Balz M et al (1993) Rapid identification of mycobacteria to the species level by polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzyme analysis. J Clin Microbiol 31:175–178

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Nguyen A (2011) Differentiation of M. chelonae from M. abscessus using matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight. Diagnostic mycobacteriology, all methods and susceptibility (Division C), C–Clinical Microbiology (May 22, 2011), ASM conference, New Orleans, LA

  183. Saleeb PG, Drake SK, Murray PR et al (2011) Identification of mycobacteria in solid-culture media by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. J Clin Microbiol 49(5):1790–1794

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Park M, Bush J, Burd E, et al. (2012) Identification of mycobacterial species from clinical isolates using MALDI-TOF. 2012 ASM conference (poster presentation), San Francisco, CA, June 16–19, 2012

  185. Fothergill A, Kasinathan V, Hyman J, et al. (2012) Rapid identification of bacteria and yeasts from positive blood culture bottles by using a lysis-filtration method and MALDI-TOF mass spectrum analysis with SARAMIS Database. 2012 ASM conference (poster presentation), San Francisco, CA, June 16–19, 2012

  186. Ryu HJ, Kim WJ, Oh CH et al (2005) Iatrogenic Mycobacterium abscessus infection associated with acupuncture: clinical manifestations and its treatment. Int J Dermatol 44:846–850

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Chiu HY, Liu KL, Liao YH (2010) Perigastrostomy infection caused by Mycobacterium abscessus in an immunocompetent patient. Acta Derm Venereol 90:100–101

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Ricciardo B, Weedon D, Butler G (2010) Mycobacterium abscessus infection complicating a professional tattoo. Australas J Dermatol 51:287–289

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Chang SL, Chung WH, Huang YH et al (2008) Bilateral sporotrichoid lymphocutaneous dermatosis in a drug abuser: case report and review of the literature. Am J Clin Dermatol 9:393–395

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Chen HH, Hsiao CH, Chiu HC (2004) Successive development of cutaneous polyarteritis nodosa, leucocytoclastic vasculitis and Sweet’s syndrome in a patient with cervical lymphadenitis caused by Mycobacterium fortuitum. Br J Dermatol 151:1096–1100

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Escalonilla P, Esteban J, Soriano ML et al (1998) Cutaneous manifestations of infection by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Clin Exp Dermatol 23:214–221

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Sarma S, Thakur R (2008) Cutaneous infection with Mycobacterium fortuitum: an unusual presentation. Indian J Med Microbiol 26(4):388–390

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Passantino A, Macrì D, Coluccio P et al (2008) Importation of mycobacteriosis with ornamental fish: medico-legal implications. Travel Med Infect Dis 6:240–244

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Meyers H, Brown-Elliott BA, Moore D et al (2002) An outbreak of Mycobacterium chelonae infection following liposuction. Clin Infect Dis 34:1500–1507

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Kluger N, Cohen P, Fallet-Bianco C et al (2010) Mycobacterium chelonae infection under adalimumab therapy for spondylarthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 28:101–102

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Fischer TW, Assefa S, Bauer HI et al (2002) Diagnostic odyssey of a cutaneous mycobacteriosis rare in central Europe. Dermatology 205:289–292

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Tsai WC, Hsieh HC, Su HM et al (2008) Mycobacterium abscessus endocarditis: a case report and literature review. Kaohsiung J Med Sci 24:481–486

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Besada E (2011) Rapid growing mycobacteria and TNF-α blockers: case report of a fatal lung infection with Mycobacterium abscessus in a patient treated with infliximab, and literature review. Clin Exp Rheumatol 29:705–707

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Natsag J, Min Z, Hamad Y et al (2012) A mysterious gram-positive rods. Case Rep Infect Dis 2012:841834

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Chen CY, Sheng WH, Lai CC et al (2012) Mycobacterial infections in adult patients with hematological malignancy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 31(6):1059–1066

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Benwill J, Babineaux M, Sarria JC (2010) Pulmonary Mycobacterium abscessus in an AIDS patient. Am J Med Sci 339:495–496

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Morales P, Ros JA, Blanes M et al (2007) Successful recovery after disseminated infection due to Mycobacterium abscessus in a lung transplant patient: subcutaneous nodule as first manifestation—a case report. Transplant Proc 39:2413–2415

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Yasar KK, Pehlivanoglu F, Sengoz G et al (2011) Successfully treated Mycobacterium abscessus mastitis: a rare cause of breast masses. Indian J Med Microbiol 29:425–427

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Girgis DO, Karp CL, Miller D (2012) Ocular infections caused by non-tuberculous mycobacteria: update on epidemiology and management. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 40(5):467–475

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Guevara-Patiño A, Sandoval de Mora M, Farreras A et al (2010) Soft tissue infection due to Mycobacterium fortuitum following acupuncture: a case report and review of the literature. J Infect Dev Ctries 4(8):521–525

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Müller H, Eisendle K, Zelger B et al (2008) Bilateral scrofuloderma of the axilla masquerading as hidradenitis suppurativa. Acta Derm Venereol 88(6):629–630

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Keijsers RR, Bovenschen HJ, Seyger MM (2011) Cutaneous complication after BCG vaccination: case report and review of the literature. J Dermatol Treat 22(6):315–318

    Article  Google Scholar 

  208. Bellet JS, Prose NS (2005) Skin complications of Bacillus Calmette–Guérin immunization. Curr Opin Infect Dis 18(2):97–100

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Sanders JW, Walsh AD, Snider RL et al (1995) Disseminated Mycobacterium scrofulaceum infection: a potentially treatable complication of AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 20(3):549

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Murray-Leisure KA, Egan N, Weitekamp MR (1987) Skin lesions caused by Mycobacterium scrofulaceum. Arch Dermatol 123(3):369–370

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Tandon R, Kim KS, Serrao R (2007) Disseminated Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection in a person with AIDS with cutaneous and CNS lesions. AIDS Read 17(11):555–560

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Tortoli E (2009) Clinical manifestations of nontuberculous mycobacteria infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 15(10):906–910

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Bechara C, Macheras E, Heym B et al (2010) Mycobacterium abscessus skin infection after tattooing: first case report and review of the literature. Dermatology 221(1):1–4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Shaaban HS, Bishop SL, Menon L et al (2012) Mycobacterium chelonae infection of the parotid gland. J Glob Infect Dis 4(1):79–81

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Kothavade RJ, Panthaki MH, Mohanty KC (1997) Evaluation of pulmonary tuberculosis and its correlation with oral and bronchopulmonary candidiasis in HIV-seropositive and seronegative patients. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases, Conference on Global Lung Health and Annual Meeting of the IUATLD, Paris, France, abstract 053-PA04, vol. 1, no. 5, supplement 1, page S156

  216. Kothavade RJ, Panthaki MH, Mohanty KC (1997) Evaluation of an antimicrobial mixture–polymyxin-B, amphotericin-B, nalidixic acid, trimethoprim and azlocillin (PANTA) with various synthetic culture substrates for the isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the sputum samples. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases. Conference on Global Lung Health and Annual Meeting of the IUATLD, Paris, France, abstract 054-PA04, vol. 1, no. 5, supplement 1, page S146

  217. Kothavade RJ, Panthaki MH (1998) Evaluation of phospholipase activity of Candida albicans and its correlation with pathogenicity in mice. J Med Microbiol 47(2):99–102

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Conflict of interest

No conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Microbiology Lab, Epcor, 10065 Jasper Ave NW, Edmonton, AB, T5J 3B1, Canada

    R. J. Kothavade

  2. Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology, Grant Medical College and Sir JJ Group of Hospitals, Mumbai, MH, 400008, India

    R. J. Kothavade

  3. Department of Dermatology and STD, LTM Medical College & LTMG Hospital, Sion, Mumbai, MH, 400022, India

    R. S. Dhurat

  4. Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology, TNMC and BYL Nair Charitable Hospital, Mumbai, MH, 400008, India

    S. N. Mishra

  5. Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9, Canada

    U. R. Kothavade

Authors
  1. R. J. Kothavade
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. R. S. Dhurat
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. S. N. Mishra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. U. R. Kothavade
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to R. J. Kothavade.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kothavade, R.J., Dhurat, R.S., Mishra, S.N. et al. Clinical and laboratory aspects of the diagnosis and management of cutaneous and subcutaneous infections caused by rapidly growing mycobacteria. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 32, 161–188 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-012-1766-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-012-1766-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation