Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Factors affecting the energy cost of level running at submaximal speed

  • Invited Review
  • Published:
European Journal of Applied Physiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Metabolic measurement is still the criterion for investigation of the efficiency of mechanical work and for analysis of endurance performance in running. Metabolic demand may be expressed either as the energy spent per unit distance (energy cost of running, C r) or as energy demand at a given running speed (running economy). Systematic studies showed a range of costs of about 20 % between runners. Factors affecting C r include body dimensions: body mass and leg architecture, mostly calcaneal tuberosity length, responsible for 60–80 % of the variability. Children show a higher C r than adults. Higher resting metabolism and lower leg length/stature ratio are the main putative factors responsible for the difference. Elastic energy storage and reuse also contribute to the variability of C r. The increase in C r with increasing running speed due to increase in mechanical work is blunted till 6–7 m s−1 by the increase in vertical stiffness and the decrease in ground contact time. Fatigue induced by prolonged or intense running is associated with up to 10 % increased C r; the contribution of metabolic and biomechanical factors remains unclear. Women show a C r similar to men of similar body mass, despite differences in gait pattern. The superiority of black African runners is presumably related to their leg architecture and better elastic energy storage and reuse.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

C r :

Energy cost of running

COM:

Center of mass

CV:

Coefficient of variation

EMG:

Electromyographic activity

k leg :

Leg stiffness

k vert :

Effective vertical stiffness

L:

Leg length

L/S:

Leg length-stature ratio

M:

Body mass

RE:

Running economy

RER:

Respiratory exchange ratio

S:

Stature

SF:

Stride frequency

SL:

Stride length

t c :

Contact time

T re :

Rectal temperature

v amax:

Maximal aerobic running speed

\(\dot{V}{\text{E}}\) :

Pulmonary ventilation

\(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{ 2}\) :

Oxygen consumption

\(\mathop V\limits^{.}\!\mathop {\text{O}}\nolimits_{{ 2 {\text{max}}}}\) :

Maximal oxygen consumption

\(v\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{ 2{\rm max}}\) :

Running speed sustained at \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{ 2{\rm max}}\)

W EXT :

External work

W INT :

Internal work

W TOT :

Total work

References

  • Aaron EA, Johnson BD, Seow KC, Dempsey JA (1992) Oxygen cost of exercise hyperpnea: measurements. J Appl Physiol 72:1810–1817

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abe D, Muraki S, Yanagawa K, Fukuoka Y, Nihata S (2007) Changes in EMG characteristics and metabolic energy cost during 90-min prolonged running. Gait Posture 26:607–610

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albracht K, Arampatzis A (2013) Exercise-induced changes in triceps surae tendon stiffness and muscle strength affect running economy in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 113:1605–1615

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen WK, Seals DR, Hurley BF, Ehsani AA, Hagberg JM (1985) Lactate threshold and distance-running performance in young and older endurance athletes. J Appl Physiol 58:1281–1284

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allor KM, Pivarnik JM, Sam LJ, Perkins CD (2000) Treadmill economy in girls and women matched for height and weight. J Appl Physiol 89:512–516

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson T (1996) Biomechanics and running economy. Sports Med 22:76–89

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arampatzis A, Brüggemann G-P, Metzler V (1999) The effect of speed on leg stiffness and joint kinetics in human running. J Biomech 32:1349–1353

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arampatzis A, Knicker A, Metzler V, Brüggemann GP (2000) Mechanical power in running: a comparison of different approaches. J Biomech 33:1263–1268

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arampatzis A, De Monte G, Karamanidis K, Morey-Klasping G, Stafilidis S, Brüggeman G-P (2006) Influence of the muscle-tendon unit’s mechanical and morphological properties on running economy. J Exp Biol 209:3345–3357

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arampatzis A, Karamanidis K, Morey-Klasping G, De Monte G, Stafilidis S (2007) Mechanical properties of the triceps surae tendon and aponeurosis in relation to intensity of sport activity. J Biomech 40:1946–1952

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arampatzis A, Degens H, Baltzopoulos V, Rittweger J (2011) Why do older sprinters reach the finish line later? Exerc Sport Sci Rev 39:18–22

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ardigò LP, Lafortuna C, Minetti AE, Mognoni P, Saibene F (1995) Metabolic and mechanical aspects of foot landing type, forefoot and rearfoot stike, in human running. Acta Physiol Scand 155:17–22

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ariëns GAM, van Mechelen W, Kemper HCG, Twisk JWR (1997) The longitudinal development of running economy in males and females aged between 13 and 27 years: the Amsterdam Growth and Health Study. Eur J Appl Physiol 76:214–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Arsac LM, Deschodt-Arsac V, Lacour JR (2013) Influence of individual energy cost on running capacity in warm humid environments. Eur J Appl Physiol 113:205–211

    Google Scholar 

  • Avogadro P, Dolenec A, Belli A (2003) Changes in mechanical work during severe exhausting running. Eur J Appl Physiol 90:165–170

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes KR, Hopkins WG, McGuigan MR, Kilding AE (2013) Effects of different uphill interval-training programs on running economy and performance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 8:639–647

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes KR, McGuigan MR, Kilding AE (2014) Lower-body determinants of running economy in male and female distance runners. J strength Cond Res 28:1289–1297

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes KR, Hopkins WG, McGuigan MR, Kilding AE (2015) Warm-up with a weighted vest improves running performance via leg stiffness and running economy. J Sci Med Sport 18:103–108

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barstow TJ, Molé P (1991) Linear and nonlinear characteristics of oxygen uptake kinetics during heavy exercise. J Appl Physiol 71:2099–2106

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassett DR Jr, Giese MD, Nagle FJ, Ward A, Raab DM, Balke B (1985) Aerobic requirements of overground versus treadmill running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 17:477–481

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belli A, Lacour JR, Komi P, Candau R, Denis C (1995) Mechanical step variability during treadmill running. Eur J Appl Physiol 70:510–517

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bergh U, Sjödin B, Forsberg A, Svedenhag J (1991) The relationship between body mass and oxygen uptake during running in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc 23:2089–2097

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernard O, Maddio F, Ouattara S, Jimenez C, Charpenet A, Melin B, Bittel J (1998) Influence of the oxygen uptake slow component on the aerobic energy cost of high-intensity submaximal treadmill running in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 78:578–585

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhambani Y, Singh M (1985) Metabolic and cinematographic analysis of walking and running in men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 17:131–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Biewener AA, Farley CT, Roberts TJ, Temaner M (2004) Muscle mechanical advantage of human walking and running: implications for energy cost. J Appl Physiol 97:2266–2274

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Billat V, Binsse V, Petit B, Koralsztein JP (1998a) High level runners are able to maintain a \(\dot{\text{V}}{\text{O}}_{ 2}\) steady-state below \(\dot{\text{V}}{\text{O}}_{ 2{\rm max}}\) in an all-out run over their critical velocity. Arch Physiol Bioch 106:38–45

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Billat V, Richard R, Binsse V, Koralsztein JP, Haouzi P (1998b) \(\dot{\text{V}}{\text{O}}_{ 2}\) slow component for severe exercise depends on type of exercise and is not correlated with time to fatigue. J Appl Physiol 85:2118–2124

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Billat VL, Flechet B, Petit B, Muriaux G, Koralsztein JP (1999) Interval training at \(\dot{\text{V}}{\text{O}}_{ 2{\rm max}}\): effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 31:156–163

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Billat V, Lepretre PM, Heugas AM, Mile-Hamard L, Drai S, Koralsztein JP (2003) Training and bioenergetic characteristics in elite male and female Kenyan runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35:297–304

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borrani F, Candau R, Perrey S, Millet GY, Millet GP, Rouillon JD (2003) Does the mechanical work in running change during the \(\mathop {{V}}\limits^{.} \mathop {\text{O}}\nolimits_{ 2}\) slow component? Med Sci Sports Exerc 35:50–57

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bosch AN, Goslin BR, Noakes TD, Dennis SC (1990) Physiological differences between black and white runners during a treadmill marathon. Eur J Appl Physiol 61:68–72

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bosco CG, Montanari R, Ribacchi R, Giovenali P, Latteri F, Iachelli G, Faina M, Colli R, Dal Monte A, La Rosa M, Cortili G, Saibene F (1987) Relationship between the efficiency of muscular work during jumping and the energetics of running. Eur J Appl Physiol 56:138–143

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bourdin M, Pastene J, Germain M, Lacour JR (1993) Influence of training, sex, age and body mass on the energy cost of running. Eur J Appl Physiol 66:439–444

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bourdin M, Belli A, Arsac LM, Bosco C, Lacour JR (1995) Effect of vertical loading on energy cost and kinematics of running in trained male subjects. J Appl Physiol 79:2078–2085

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyer KA, Nigg BM (2004) Muscle activity in the leg is tuned in response to impact force characteristics. J Biomech 37:1583–1588

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bransford DR, Howley ET (1977) The oxygen cost of running in trained and untrained men and women. Med Sci Sports 9:41–44

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brisswalter J, Legros P (1994) Daily stability in energy cost of running, respiratory parameters and stride rate among well-trained middle distance runners. Int J Sports Med 15:238–241

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brueckner JC, Atchou G, Capelli C, Duvallet A, Barrault D, Jousselin E, Rieu M, di Prampero PE (1991) The energy cost of running increases with the distance covered. Eur J Appl Physiol 62:385–389

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bunc V, Heller J (1989) Energy cost of running in similarly trained men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 59:178–183

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Candau R, Belli A, Millet GY, Georges D, Barbier B, Rouillon JD (1998) Energy cost and running mechanics during a treadmill run to voluntary exhaustion in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 77:479–485

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Capelli C, di Prampero PE (1995) Effects of altitude on top speeds during 1 h unaccompanied cycling. Eur J Appl Physiol 71:469–471

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carter H, Jones AM, Baestow TJ, Burnley M, Williams C, Doust JH (2000a) Oxygen uptake kinetics in treadmill running and cycle ergometry: a comparison. J Appl Physiol 89:899–907

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter H, Jones AM, Baestow TJ, Burnley M, Williams C, Doust JH (2000b) Effect of endurance training on oxygen uptake kinetics during treadmill running. J Appl Physiol 89:1744–1752

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavagna GA, Kaneko M (1977) Mechanical work and efficiency in level walking and running. J Physiol (London) 263:467–481

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavagna GA, Saibene FP, Margaria R (1964) Mechanical work in running. J Appl Physiol 19:249–256

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavagna GA, Saibene FP, Margaria R (1965) Effect of negative work on the amount of positive work performed by an isolated muscle. J Appl Physiol 20:157–158

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavagna GA, Franzetti P, Heglund NC, Willems PA (1988) The determinants of the step frequency in running, trotting and hopping in humans and other vertebrates. J Physiol (London) 399:81–92

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cavagna GA, Legramandi MA, Peyré-Tartaruga LA (2008) Old men running: mechanical work and elastic bounce. Proc R Soc B 275:411–418

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavanagh PR, Williams KR (1982) The effects of stride length variation on oxygen uptake during distance running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 14:30–35

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavanagh PR, Pollock ML, Landa J (1977) A biomechanical comparison of elite and good distance runners. In: Milvy P (ed) The marathon: physiological, epidemiological and psychological studies. Annals of the New York academy of sciences, vol 301, pp 328–345

  • Chapman RF, Laymon AS, Wilhite DP, MCKenzie JM, Tanner DA, Stager JM (2012) Ground contact times as an indicator of metabolic cost in elite distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 44:917–925

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coetzer P, Noakes TD, Sanders B, Lambert MI, Bosch AN, Wiggins T, Dennis SC (1993) Superior fatigue resistance of elite black South African distance runners. J Appl Physiol 75:1822–1827

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conley DL, Krahenbuhl GS (1980) Running economy and distance performance of highly trained athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 12:357–360

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conley DL, Krahenbuhl GS, Burkett LN (1981) Training for aerobic capacity and running economy. Phys Sports Med 9:107–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Costill DL, Branan G, Eddy D, Sparks K (1971) Determinants of marathon running success. Int Z Angew Physiol 29:249–254

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Craib MW, Mitchell VA, Fields KB, Cooper TR, Hopewell R, Morgan DW (1996) The association between flexibility and running economy in sub-elite male distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28:737–743

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dalleau G, Belli A, Bourdin M, Lacour JR (1998) The spring-mass model and the energy cost of treadmill running. Eur J Appl Physiol 77:257–263

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniels JT (1974) Running with Jim Ryun: a five-year study. Phys Sports Med 2:62–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniels JT (1985) A physiologist’s view of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 17:332–338

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daniels J, Daniels M (1992) Running economy of elite male and elite female runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 24:483–489

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daniels J, Oldridge N (1971) Changes in oxygen consumption of young boys during growth and running training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 3:161–165

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniels J, Krahenbuhl G, Foster C, Gilbert J, Daniels S (1977): Aerobic responses of female distance runners to submaximal and maximal exercise. In: Milvy P (ed) The marathon: physiological, medical and psychological studies. Ann NY Acad Sci 301:726–733

  • Daniels J, Oldridge N, Nagle F, White B (1978) Differences and changes in \(\mathop {{V}}\limits^{.} \mathop {\text{O}}\nolimits_{ 2}\) among young runners 10 to 18 years of age. Med Sci Sports Exerc 10:200–203

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniels J, Scardina N, Hayes J, Foley P (1986) Elite and subelite female middle- and long-distance runners. In: Landers DM (ed) Sport and elite performers. Human Kinetics Publishers Inc, Champaign, IL, pp 57–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies CTM (1980) Metabolic cost of exercise and physical performance in children with some observations in external loading. Eur J Appl Physiol 45:95–102

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davies CTM, Thompson MW (1979) Aerobic performance of female marathon and male ultramarathon athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 41:233–245

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davies CTM, Thompson MW (1986) Physiological responses to prolonged exercise in ultramarathon athletes. J Appl Physiol 61:611–617

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Ruiter CJ, Verdijk PWL, Werker W, Zuidema MJ, de Haan A (2014) Stride frequency in relation to oxygen consumption in experienced and novice runners. Eur J Sport Sci 14:251–258

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • di Prampero PE (1986) The energy cost of human locomotion on land and in water. Int J Sports Med 7:55–72

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • di Prampero PE, Ferretti G (1999) The energetic of anaerobic muscle metabolism: a reappraisal of older and recent concepts. Respir Physiol 118:103–115

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • di Prampero PE, Atchou G, Brückner JC, Moia C (1986) The energetic of endurance running. Eur J Appl Physiol 55:259–266

    Google Scholar 

  • di Prampero PE, Salvadego D, Fusi S, Grassi B (2009) A simple method for assessing the energy cost of running during incremental tests. J Appl Physiol 113:584–594

    Google Scholar 

  • Dick RW, Cavanagh PR (1987) An explanation of the upward drift in oxygen uptake during prolonged sub-maximal downhill running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 19:310–317

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Divert C, Mornieux G, Freychat P, Baly L, Mayer F, Belli A (2008) Barefoot-shod running differences: shoe or mass effect. Int J Sports Med 29:512–518

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dutto DJ, Smith GA (2002) Changes in spring-mass characteristics during treadmill running to exhaustion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34:1324–1331

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farley CT, González O (1996) Leg stiffness and stride frequency in human running. J Biomech 29:181–196

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fellin RE, Manal K, Davis IS (2010) Comparison of lower extremity kinematic curves during overground and treadmill running. J Appl Biomech 26:407–414

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenn WO (1930) Work against gravity and work due to velocity changes in running. Am J Physiol 93:433–462

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferley DD, Osborn RW, Vukovic MD (2013) The effects of incline and level-grade high-intensity interval treadmill training on running economy and muscle power in well-trained distance runners. J Strength Cond Res 27:1549–1559

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrauti A, Bergermann M, Fernandez-Fernandez J (2010) Effects of a concurrent strength and endurance training on running performance and running economy in recreational marathon runners. J Strength Cond Res 24:2770–2778

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferretti G, Atchou G, Grassi B, Marconi C, Cerretelli P (1991) Energetics of locomotion in African pygmies. Eur J Appl Physiol 62:7–10

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferris DP, Liang K, Farley CT (1998) Running in the real world: adjusting leg stiffness for different surfaces. Proc R Soc Lond B 265:989–994

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferris DP, Liang K, Farley CT (1999) Runners adjust leg stiffness for their first step on a new running surface. J Biomech 32:787–794

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher JR, Esau SP, MacIntosh BR (2009) Economy of running: beyond the measurement of oxygen uptake. J Appl Physiol 107:1918–1922

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher JR, Esau SP, MacIntosh BR (2010) Changes in tendon stiffness and running economy in highly trained distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 110:1037–1046

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher JR, Pfister TR, MacIntosh BR (2013) Energy cost of running and Achilles tendon stiffness in man and woman trained runners. Physiol Rep 1:e00178. doi:10.1002/phy2.178

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foster C, Lucia A (2007) Running economy: the forgotten factor in elite performance. Sports Med 37:316–319

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franch J, Madsen K, Djurhuus M, Pedersen PK (1998) Improved running economy following intensified training correlates with reduced ventilatory demands. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30:1250–1256

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franz JR, Wierzbinsky CM, Kram R (2012) Metabolic cost of running barefoot versus shod: is lighter better? Med Sci Sports Exerc 44:1519–1525

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frederick EC, Daniels JT, Hayes JW (1984) The effect of shoe weight on the aerobic demands of running. In: Bachl N, Prokop L, Suckert R (eds) Current topics in sports medicine. Urban & Schwarzenberg, Vienna, pp 616–625

    Google Scholar 

  • Gimenez P, Kerhervé H, Messonnier LA, Féasson L, Millet GY (2013) Changes in the Energy Cost of Running during a 24-h Treadmill Exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 45:1807–1813

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Girard O, Millet GP, Slawinski J, Racinais S, Micaleff JP (2013) Changes in running mechanics and spring-mass behaviour during a 5-km time trial. Int J Sports Med 34:832–840

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen P, Aagaard P, Kjaer M, Larsson B, Magnusson SP (2003) Effect of habitual running on human Achilles tendon load-deformation properties and cross-sectional area. J Appl Physiol 95:2375–2380

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison AJ, Gaffney S (2001) Motor development and gender effects of stretch-shortening cycle performance. J Sci Med Sport 4:406–415

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • He J, Kram R, McMahon T (1991) Mechanics of running under simulated low gravity. J Appl Physiol 71:863–870

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heise GD, Martin PE (1998) “Leg spring” characteristics and the aerobic demand of running associated with ground reaction forces characteristics? Med Sci Sports Exerc 30:750–754

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heise GD, Morgan DW, Hough H, Craib M (1996) Relationships between running economy and temporal EMG characteristics of bi-articular leg muscles. Int J Sports Med 17:128–133

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helgerud J (1994) Maximal oxygen uptake, anaerobic threshold and running economy in women and men with similar performances level in marathons. Eur J Appl Physiol 68:155–161

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Helgerud J, Ingjer F, Strømme SB (1990) Sex differences in performance-matched marathon runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 61:433–439

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Helgerud J, Høydal K, Wang E, Karlsen T, Berg P, Bjerkaas M, Simonsen T, Helgesen C, Hjorth N, Bach R, Hoff J (2007) Aerobic high-intensity intervals improve \(\mathop {\text{V}}\limits^{.}\!\mathop {\text{O}}\nolimits_{{ 2 {\text{max}}}}\) more than moderate training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39:665–671

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helgerud J, Støren Ø, Hoff J (2010) Are there differences in running economy at different velocities for well-trained distance runners? Eur J Appl Physiol 108:1099–1105

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hochachka PW, Stanley C, Matheson GO, McKenzie DC, Allen PS, Parkhouse WS (1991) Metabolic and work efficiencies during exercise in Andean natives. J Appl Physiol 70:1720–1730

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Högberg P (1952) How do stride length and stride frequency influence the energy output during running? Arbeitsphysiologie 14:437–441

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter I, Smith GA (2007) Preferred and optimal stride frequency, stiffness and economy: changes with fatigue during a1-h high intensity run. Eur J Appl Physiol 100:653–661

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter GR, Newcomer BR, Larson-Meyer DR, Bamman MM, Weinsier RL (2001) Muscle metabolic economy is inversely related to exercise intensity and type II myofiber distribution. Muscle Nerve 24:654–661

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter GR, Katsoulis K, McCarthy JP, Ogard WK, Bamman MM, Wood DS, Den Hollander JA, Blaudeau TE, Newcomer BR (2011) Tendon length and joint flexibility are related to running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 43:1492–1499

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iaia FM, Hellsten Y, Nielsen JJ, Fernström M, Sahlin K, Bangsbo J (2009) Four weeks of speed endurance training reduces energy expenditure during exercise and maintains muscle oxidative capacity despite a reduction in training volume. J Appl Physiol 106:73–80

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ingham SA, Whyte GP, Pedlar C, Bailey DM, Dunman N, Nevill AM (2008) Determinants of 800-m and 1500-m running performance using allometric models. Med Sci Sports Exerc 40:345–350

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ishikawa M, Komi PV (2007) The role of the stretch reflex in the gastrocnemius muscle during human locomotion at various speeds. J Appl Physiol 103:1030–1036

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ito A, Komi PV, Sjödin B, Bosco C, Karlsson J (1983) Mechanical efficiency of positive work in running at different speeds. Med Sci Sports Exerc 15:299–308

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston RE, Quinn TJ, Kertzer R, Vroman NB (1997) Strength training in female distance runners: impact on running economy. J Strength Cond Res 11:224–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Jokl P, Sethi PM, Cooper AJ (2004) Master’s performance in the New York City Marathon 1983–1999. Br J Sports Med 38:408–412

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones AM (1998) A five year physiological case study of an Olympic runner. Br J Sports Med 32:39–43

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones AM (2002) Running economy is negatively related to sit-and-reach test performance in international-standard distance runners. Int J Sports Med 23:40–43

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones AM (2006) The physiology of the world record holder for the women’s marathon. Int J Sports Sci Coach 1:101–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones A, Doust J (1996) A 1% treadmill grade most accurately reflects the energy cost of outdoor running. J Sports Sci 14:321–327

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones AM, McConnell AM (1999) Effect of exercise modality on oxygen uptake kinetics during heavy exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 80:213–219

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaneko M (1990) Mechanics and energetics in running with special reference to efficiency. J Biomech 23(Suppl 1):57–63

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerdok AE, Biewener AA, McMahon TA, Weyand PG, Herr HM (2002) Energetics and mechanics of human running on surfaces of different stiffnesses. J Appl Physiol 92:469–478

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleiber M (1961) The fire of life. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kong PW, de Heer H (2008) Anthropometric, gait and strength characteristics of Kenyan distance runners. J Sports Sci Med 7:462–466

    Google Scholar 

  • Krahenbuhl GS, Williams TJ (1992) Running economy: changes with age during childhood and adolescence. Med Sci Sports Exerc 24:299–308

    Google Scholar 

  • Kram R, Taylor R (1990) Energetics of running: a new perspective. Nature 346:863–870

    Google Scholar 

  • Kyröläinen H, Pullinen T, Candau R, Avela J, Huttunen P, Komi PV (2000) Effects of marathon running on running economy and kinematics. Eur J Appl Physiol 82:297–304

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kyröläinen H, Belli A, Komi PV (2001) Biomechanical factors affecting running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33:1330–1337

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kyröläinen H, Kivelä R, Koskinen S, MCBride J, Andersen JL, Takala T, Sipilä S, Komi PV (2003) Interrelationships between muscle structure, muscle strength, and running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35:45–49

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lacour JR, Padilla-Magunacelaya S, Barthélémy JC, Dormois D (1990) The energetic of middle-distance running. Eur J Appl Physiol 60:38–43

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lacour JR, Messonnier L, Bourdin M (2007) The leveling-off of oxygen uptake is related to blood lactate accumulation. Retrospective study of 94 elite rowers. Eur J Appl Physiol 82:297–304

    Google Scholar 

  • Lake MJ, Cavanagh PR (1996) Six weeks of training does not change running mechanics or improve running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28:860–869

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lake MJ, Lafortune MA (1998) Mechanical inputs related to perception of lower extremity impact loading severity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30:136–143

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen HB (2003) Kenyan dominance in distance running. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 136:161–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen HB, Christensen DL, Nolan T, Søndergaard H (2004) Body dimensions, exercise capacity and physical activity level of adolescent Nandi boys in Western Kenya. Ann Hum Biol 31:159–173

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen HB, Nolan T, Borch C, Søndergaard H (2005) Training response of adolescent Kenyan town and village boys to endurance running. Scand J Med Sci Sports 15:48–57

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazzer S, Salvadego D, Rejc E, Buglione A, Antonutto G, di Prampero PE (2012) The energetic of ultra-endurance running. Eur J Appl Physiol 112:1709–1715

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazzer S, Taboga P, Salvadego D, Rejc E, Simunic B, Narici MV, Buglione A, Giovanelli N, Antonutto G, Grassi B, Pisot R, di Prampero PE (2014) Factors affecting metabolic cost of transport during a multi-stage running race. J Exp Biol 217:787–795

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Legramandi MA, Schepens B, Cavagna GA (2013) Running humans attain optimal elastic bounce in their teens. Sci Rep 3:1310. doi:10.1038/srep01310

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lucia A, Esteve-Lanao J, Oliván J, Gómez-Gallego F, San Juan AF, Santiago C, Pérez M, Chamorro-Viña C, Foster C (2006) Physiological characteristics of the best Eritrean runners—exceptional running economy. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 11:530–540

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucia A, Oliván J, Bravo J, Gonzalez-Freire M, Foster C (2008) The key to top-level endurance running performance: a unique exemple. Br J Sports Med 42:172–174

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luhtanen P, Komi PV (1978) Mechanical energy states during running. Eur J Appl Physiol 38:41–48

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lundby C, Calbet JAL, Sander M, van Hall G, Mazzeo RS, Stray-Gundersen J, Stager JM, Chapman RF, Saltin B, Levine BD (2007) Exercise economy does not change after acclimatization to moderate to very high altitude. Scand J Med Sci Sports 17:281–291

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macfarlane DJ (2001) Automated metabolic gas analysis systems. Sports Med 31:841–861

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Margaria R, Cerretelli P, Aghemo P, Sassi G (1963) Energy cost of running. J Appl Physiol 18:367–370

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin PE, Heise GD, Morgan DW (1993) Interrelationships between mechanical power, energy transfers, and walking and running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25:508–515

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayers N, Gutin B (1979) Physiological characteristics of elite pre-pubertal cross-country runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 11:172–176

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayhew JL (1977) Oxygen cost and energy expenditure of running in trained runners. Br J Sports Med 11:116–121

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCann DJ, Adams WC (2003) The size-independent oxygen cost of running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35:1049–1056

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon TA, Cheng GC (1990) The mechanics of running: how does stiffness couple with speed? J Biomech 23(Suppl 1):65–78

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon TA, Greene PR (1979) The influence of track compliance on running. J Biomech 12:89–904

    Google Scholar 

  • Medbø JL, Mohn AC, Tabata I, Bahr R, Vaage O, Sejersted OM (1988) Anaerobic capacity determined by maximal accumulated O2 deficit. J Appl Physiol 64:50–60

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mero A, Komi PV (1986) Force-, EMG- and elasticity–velocity relationships at submaximal and supramaximal running speeds in sprinters. Eur J Appl Physiol 55:553–561

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millet GP, Lepers R, Lattier G, Martin V, Babault N, Maffiuletti N (2000) Influence of ultra-long-term fatigue on the oxygen cost of two types of locomotion. Eur J Appl Physiol 83:376–380

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Millet GP, Jaouen B, Borrani F, Candau R (2002) Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and \(\mathop {\text{V}}\limits^{.}\!\mathop {\text{O}}\nolimits_{{ 2 {\text{max}}}}\) kinetics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34:1351–1359

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Millet GY, Hoffman MD, Morin JB (2012) Sacrifying economy to improve running performance—a reality in the ultramarathon? J Appl Physiol 113:507–509

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore IS, Jones AM, Dixon SJ (2012) Mechanisms for improved running economy in beginner runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 44:1756–1763

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan DW, Martin PE, Krahenbuhl GS (1989) Factors affecting running economy. Sports Med 7:310–330

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan D, Martin P, Baldini F, Krahenbuhl G (1990) Effects of a prolonged maximal run on running economy and running mechanics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 22:834–840

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan DW, Martin PE, Krahenbuhl GS, Baldini FD (1991) Variability in running economy and mechanics among trained male runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 23:378–383

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan DW, Martin PE, Craib M, Caruso C, Clifton R, Hopewell R (1994) Effect of step length optimization on the aerobic demand of running. J Appl Physiol 77:245–251

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan DW, Bransford DR, Costill DL, Daniels JT, Howley ET, Krahenbuhl GS (1995) Variation of the aerobic demand of running among trained and untrained subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27:404–409

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan DW, Strohmeyer HS, Daniels JT, Beaudoin CC, Craib MW, Borden RA, Greer PJ, Burleson CL (1996) Short-term changes in 10-km race pace aerobic demand and gait mechanics following a bout of high-intensity distance running. Eur J Appl Physiol 73:267–272

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morin JB, Samozino P, Zameziati K, Belli A (2007) Effects of altered stride frequency and contact time on leg–spring behavior in human running. J Biomech 40:3341–3348

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morin JB, Samozino P, Millet GY (2011) Changes in running kinematics, kinetics and spring–mass behavior over a 24-h run. Med Sci Sports Exerc 43:829–836

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers MJ, Steudel K (1985) Effect of limb mass and its distribution on the energetic cost of running. J Exp Biol 116:363–373

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nevill AM (1994) The need to scale for differences in body size and mass: an explanation of Kleiber’s 0.75 mass exponent. J Appl Physiol 77:2870–2873

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicol C, Komi PV, Marconnet P (1991) Fatigue effects of marathon running on neuromuscular performance. I. Changes in force and stiffness characteristics. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1:10–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen SR, Summer AE, Miller BV III, Turkova H, Klein S, Jensen MD (2013) Free fatty acid flux in African-American and Caucasian adults—effects of sex and race. Obesity (Silver Spring) 21:1836–1842

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norman RW, Komi PV (1979) Electromechanical delay in skeletal muscle under normal movement conditions. Acta Physiol Scand 106:241–248

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nummela A, Keränen T, Mikkekelsson LO (2007) Factors related to top running speed and economy. Int J Sports Med 28:655–661

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paavolainen L, Nummela A, Rusko H, Häkkinen K (1999a) Neuromuscular characteristics and fatigue during 10 km running. Int J Sports Med 20:516–521

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paavolainen L, Häkkinen K, Hämälainen I, Nummela A, Rusko H (1999b) Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. J Appl Physiol 86:1527–1533

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Padilla S, Bourdin M, Barthélémy JC, Lacour JR (1992) Physiological correlates of middle-distance performance. A comparative study between men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 65:561–566

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pate RR, Macera CA, Bailey SP, Bartoli WP, Powell KE (1992) Physiological, anthropometric, and training correlates of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 24:1128–1133

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira MA, Freedson PS (1997) Intraindividual variation of running economy in highly trained and moderately trained males. Int J Sports Med 18:118–124

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perl DP, Daoud AI, Lieberman DE (2012) Effects of footwear and strike type on running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 44:1335–1443

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinnington C, Dawson B (2001a) Running economy of elite surf iron men and male runners on soft dry beach sand and grass. Eur J Appl Physiol 86:62–70

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinnington HC, Dawson B (2001b) The energy cost of running on grass compared to soft dry beach sand. J Sci Med Sport 4:416–430

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Place N, Lepers R, Deley G, Millet GY (2004) Time course of neuromuscular alterations during a prolonged running exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36:1347–1356

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pugh LG (1970) Oxygen intake in track and treadmill running with observations on the effect of air resistance. J Physiol (Lond) 207:823–835

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn TJ, Manley MJ, Aziz J, Padham JL, MacKenzie AM (2011) Aging and factors related to running economy. J Strength Cond Res 25:2971–2979

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rabita G, Slawinski J, Girard O, Bignet F, Hausswirth C (2011) Spring–mass behavior during exhaustive run at constant velocity in elite triathletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 43:685–692

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raichlen DA, Armstrong H, Lieberman DE (2011) Calcaneus length determines running economy: implications for endurance running performance in modern humans and Neendertals. J Hum Evol 60:299–308

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts TJ, Kram R, Weyand PG, Taylor CR (1998) Energetics of bipedal running. I. Metabolic cost of generating force. J Exp Biol 201:2745–2751

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowland T, Green G (1988) Physiological responses to treadmill exercise in females: adult–child differences. Med Sci Sports Exerc 20:474–478

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowland T, Auchinachie J, Keenan T, Green G (1987) Physiologic responses to treadmill running in adult and prepubertal males. Int J Sports Med 8:292–297

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saibene F, Minetti AE (2003) Biomechanical and Physiological aspects of legged locomotion in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 88:297–316

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saltin B, Larsen H, Terrados N, Bangsbo J, Bak T, Kim CK, Svedenhag J, Rolf CJ (1995) Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 5:209–221

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sano K, Ishikawa M, Nobue A, Danno Y, Akiyama M, Oda T, Ito A, Hoffrén M, Nicol C, Locatelli E, Komi PV (2013) Muscle-tendon interaction and EMG profiles of world class endurance runners during hopping. Eur J Appl Physiol 113:1395–1403

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Santos-Concejero J, Tam N, Granados C, Irazusta J, Bidaurrazaga-Letona I, Zabala-Lili J, Gil SM (2014) Interaction effects of stride angle and strike pattern on running economy. Int J Sports Med 35:1118–1123

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders PU, Pyne DB, Telford RD, Hawley JA (2004a) Factors affecting running economy in trained distance runners. Sports Med 34:465–485

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders PU, Telford RD, Pyne DB, Cunningham RB, Gore CJ, Halm AG, Hawley JA (2004b) Improved running economy in elite runners after 20 days of simulated moderate altitude exposure. J Appl Physiol 96:931–937

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders PU, Telford RD, Pyne DB, Peltola EM, Cunningham RB, Gore CJ, Hawley JA (2006) Short-term plyometric training improves running economy in highly trained middle and long distance runners. J Strength Cond Res 20:947–954

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schepens B, Willems PA, Cavagna PA, Heglund NC (2001) Mechanical power and efficiency in running children. Pflïgers Arch-Eur J Physiol 442:107–116

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scholz MN, Bobbert MF, van Soest AJ, Clark JR, van Heerden J (2008) Running biomechanics: shorter heels, better economy. J Exp Biol 211:3266–3271

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scrimgeour AG, Noakes TD, Adams B, Myburgh K (1986) The influence of weekly training distance on fractional utilization of maximum aerobic capacity in marathon and ultramarathon runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 55:202–209

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serpell BG, Ball NB, Scarvell JM, Smith PN (2012) A review of models of vertical, leg, and knee stiffness in adults for running, jumping and hopping tasks. J Sports Sci 30:1347–1363

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw AJ, Ingham SA, Fudge BW, Folland JP (2013) The reliability of running economy expressed as oxygen cost and energy cost in trained distance runners. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 38:1268–1272

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw AJ, Ingham SA, Folland JP (2014): The valid measurement of running economy in runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 46:1736–1743

    Google Scholar 

  • Shorten MR (1993) The energetic of running and running shoes. J Biomech 26(Suppl 1):41–51

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sjödin B, Svedenhag J (1992) Oxygen uptake during running as related to body mass in circumpubertal boys: a longitudinal study. Eur J Appl Physiol 65:150–157

    Google Scholar 

  • Slawinski JS, Billat VL (2004) Difference in mechanical and energy cost between highly, well, and nontrained runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36:1440–1446

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slawinski J, Heubert R, Quievre J, Billat V, Hannon C (2008) Changes in spring–mass model parameters and energy cost during track running to exhaustion. J Strength Cond Res 22:930–936

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder KL, Snaterse M, Donelan JD (2012) Running perturbations reveal general strategies for step frequency selection. J Appl Physiol 112:1239–1247

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sproule J (1998) Running economy deteriorates following 60 min of exercise at 80% VO 2 max. Eur J Appl Physiol 77:366–371

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spurrs RW, Murphy AJ, Watsford AJ (2003) The effect of plyometric training on distance running performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 89:1–7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steudel-Numbers KL, Weaver TD, Wall-Scheffer CM (2007) The evolution of human running: effects of changes in lower limb length on locomotor economy. J Hum Evol 53:191–196

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Støren Ø, Helgerud J, Støa EM, Hoff J (2008) Maximal strength training improves running economy in distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 40:1087–1092

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sultana F, Abbis CR, Louis J, Bernard T, Hausswirth C, Brisswalter J (2012) Age-elated changes in cardio-respiratory responses and muscular performances following an Olympic triathlon in well-trained triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 112:1549–1556

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Svedenhag J, Sjödin B (1994) Body-mass modified running economy and step length in elite male middle- and long-distance runners. Int J Sports Med 15:305–310

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taboga P, Lazzer S, Fessehatsion R, Agosti F, Sartorio A, di Prampero PE (2012) Energetics and mechanics of running men: the influence of body mass. Eur J Appl Physiol 112:4027–4033

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taipale RS, Mikkola J, Nummela A, Vesterinen V, Capostagno B, Walker S, Gitonga D, Kraemer WJ, Häkkinen K (2010) Strength training in endurance runners. Int J Sports Med 31:468–476

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taipale RS, Mikkola J, Vesterinen V, Nummela A, Häkkinen K (2013) Neuromuscular adaptations during combined strength and endurance training in endurance runners: maximal versus explosive strength training or a mix of both. Eur J Appl Physiol 113:325–335

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tam E, Rossi H, Moia C, Berardelli C, Rosa G, Capelli C, Ferretti G (2012) Energetics of running in top-level marathon runners from Kenya. Eur J Appl Physiol 112:3797–3806

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thorstensson A (1986) Effects of moderate external loading in the aerobic demand of submaximal running in men and 10-year old boys. Eur J Appl Physiol 55:569–574

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turley KR, Wilmore JH (1997) cardiovascular responses to treadmill and cycle ergometer exercise in children and adults. J Appl Physiol 83:948–957

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner AM, Owings M, Schwane JA (2003) Improvements in running economy after 6 weeks of plyometric training. J Strength Cond Res 17:60–67

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Ingen Schenau GJ (1980) Some fundamental aspects of overground versus treadmill locomotion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 12:257–261

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Pelt RE, Dinneno FA, Seals DR, Jones PP (2001) Age-related decline in RMR in physically active men: relation to exercise volume and energy intake. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 281:E633–E639

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Döbeln W (1956) Maximal oxygen uptake, body size and total hemoglobin in normal man. Acta Physiol Scand 38:193–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Warne JP, Warrington GD (2014) Four-week habituation to simulated barefoot running improves running economy when compared with shod running. Scand J Med Sci Sports 24:563–568

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wells CL, Boorman MA, Riggs DM (1992) Effect of age and menopausal status on cardiorespiratory fitness in masters women runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 24:1147–1154

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westerlind KC, Byrnes WC, Mazzeo RS (1992) A comparison of the oxygen drift in downhill vs. level running. J Appl Physiol 72:796–800

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weston AR, Karamizrak A, Smith A, Noakes TD, Myburgh KH (1999) African runners exhibit greater fatigue resistance, lower lactate accumulation, and higher oxidative enzyme activity. J Appl Physiol 86:915–923

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weston AR, Mbambo Z, Myburgh KH (2000) Running economy of African and Caucasian distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:1130–1134

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams KR, Cavanagh PR (1987) Relationship between running distance mechanics, running economy, and performances. J Appl Physiol 63:1236–1245

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams KR, Cavanagh PR, Ziff JL (1987) Biomechanical studies of elite female distance runners. Int J Sports Med Suppl 2:107–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu F, Montgomery DL (1995) Effect of prolonged exercise at 65% and 80% \(\mathop {\text{V}}\limits^{.} \mathop {\text{O}}\nolimits_{{ 2 {\text{max}}}}\) on running economy. Int J Sports Med 16:309–315

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Ian McGill for his review of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Université de Lyon, 69622, Lyon, France

    Jean-René Lacour & Muriel Bourdin

  2. Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France

    Jean-René Lacour & Muriel Bourdin

  3. IFSTTAR, UMR_T9406, LBMC Laboratoire de Biomécanique et Mécanique des Chocs, 69675, Bron, France

    Jean-René Lacour & Muriel Bourdin

  4. Faculté de Médecine Lyon-Sud Charles Mérieux, LBMC, BP12, 69921, Oullins Cedex, France

    Muriel Bourdin

Authors
  1. Jean-René Lacour
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Muriel Bourdin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Muriel Bourdin.

Additional information

Communicated by Nigel A.S. Taylor.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lacour, JR., Bourdin, M. Factors affecting the energy cost of level running at submaximal speed. Eur J Appl Physiol 115, 651–673 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-015-3115-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-015-3115-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation