Skip to main content
Log in

A review on the manufacturing defects of complex-shaped laminate in aircraft composite structures

  • ORIGINAL ARTICLE
  • Published:
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Current development in the manufacturing of aircraft composite parts has greatly utilized the prepreg materials in the autoclave moulding process in producing exceptional quality of laminates. Nevertheless, several issues related to the manufacturing quality of the complex-shaped laminates are still found unresolved, where the thickness uniformity, resin distribution and fiber wrinkling have been mostly regarded as the critical issues that contribute to the reduced mechanical properties and life span of the structure. A review on the contribution of the processing parameters towards the manufacturing defects of the aircraft complex-shaped laminate is critically presented. The discussion included the effects of the parameters on the defect formation during the sub-processes involved. It was found that the defects occurring were substantially affected by various factors, including mould selection, material characteristics, bagging configuration, etc. Subsequently, the correlation between the processing parameters and the related defects was thoroughly investigated, in which several findings are decisively proposed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Soutis C (2005) Carbon fiber reinforced plastics in aircraft construction. Mater Sci Eng A 412(1–2):171–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Soutis C (2005) Fibre reinforced composites in aircraft construction. Prog Aerosp Sci 41(2):143–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Christos K Design and analysis of composite structures: with application to aerospace structures. John Wiley & Sons. Copyright,

  4. Callister WD, Rethwisch DG (2003) Composites. In: Materials science and engineering: an introduction, Sixth Edition John Wiley & Sons, pp 527–569

  5. Herrmann A, Zahlen P, Zuardy I (2005) Sandwich structures technology in commercial aviation. In: Thomsen OT, Bozhevolnaya E, Lyckegaard A (eds) Sandwich structures 7: advancing with sandwich structures and materials. Springer Netherlands, pp 13–26.

  6. Takeda N, Minakuchi S, Okabe Y (2007) Smart composite sandwich structures for future aerospace application—damage detection and suppression: a review. Journal of Solid Mechanics and Materials Engineering 1(1):3–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Andrew CL (2005) Aerospace applications. In: Design and manufacture of textile composites. Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, UK, pp 405–423

  8. Chandrakala K, Vanaja A, Rao R (2009) Storage life studies on RT cure glass—epoxy pre-pregs. J Reinf Plast Compos 28(16):1987–1997

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Williams JG, Mikulas MM (1975) Analytical and experimental study of structurally efficient composite hat-stiffened panels loaded in axial compression. AIAA Paper:75–754

  10. Williams JG, Stein M (1976) Buckling behavior and structural efficiency of open-section stiffened composite compression panel. AIAA J 14(11):1618–1626

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Hubert P, Poursartip A (1998) A review of flow and compaction modelling relevant to thermoset matrix laminate processing. J Reinf Plast Compos 17(4):286–318

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Fernlund G, Griffith J, Courdji R, Poursartip A (2002) Experimental and numerical study of the effect of caul-sheets on corner thinning of composite laminates. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf 33(3):411–426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Naji MI, Hoa SV (2000) Curing of thick angle-bend thermoset composite part: curing process modification for uniform thickness and uniform fiber volume fraction distribution. J Compos Mater 34(20):1710–1755

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Li Y, Li M, Gu Y, Zhang Z (2009) Numerical and experimental study on the effect of lay-up type and structural elements on thickness uniformity of L-shaped laminates. Appl Compos Mater 16(2):101–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Wang X, Zhang Z, Xie F, Li M, Dai D, Wang F (2009) Correlated rules between complex structure of composite components and manufacturing defects in autoclave molding technology. J Reinf Plast Compos 28(22):2791–2803

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Li M (2001) Optimal curing of thermoset composites: thermochemical and consolidation considerations. PhD Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

  17. Mélanie B (2010) Out-of-autoclave manufacturing of complex shape composite laminates. McGill University, Montreal, Manufacturing

  18. Caroline D, Karl B, Geoffrey B (2011) Mechanical comparison of out-of-autoclave prepreg part to conventional autoclave prepreg part. American Helicopter Society 67th Annual Forum, Virginia Beach, VA (May 3–5, 2011)

  19. Hubert P (1996) Aspect of flow and compaction of laminated composite shapes during cure. University of British Columbia,

  20. Pandey RK, Sun CT (1999) Mechanisms of wrinkle formation during the processing of composite laminates. Compos Sci Technol 59(3):405–417

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Long AC, Rudd CD, Blagdon M, Smith P (1996) Characterizing the processing and performance of aligned reinforcements during preform manufacture. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf 27(4):247–253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Loos AC, Springer GS (1983) Curing of epoxy matrix composites. J Compos Mater 17(2):135–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Boey FYC, Lye SW (1992) Void reduction in autoclave processing of thermoset composites. Part 1: high-pressure effects on void reduction. Composites 23(4):261–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. D3171-76 A (1994) Standard test method for fiber content of resin-matrix composites by matrix digestion. American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards

  25. Bowles KJ, Frimpong S (1992) Void effects on the interlaminar shear strength of unidirectional graphite-fiber-reinforced composites. J Compos Mater 26(10):1487–1509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Hubert P, Poursartip A (2001) Aspects of the compaction of composite angle laminates: an experimental investigation. J Compos Mater 35(1):2–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Naji MI, Hoa SV (1999) Curing of thick angle-bend thermoset composite part: curing cycle effect on thickness variation and fiber volume fraction. J Reinf Plast Compos 18(8):702–723

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Li M, Tucker CL (2002) Modeling and simulation of two-dimensional consolidation for thermoset matrix composites. Composites Part A-Applied Science and Manufacturing 33(6):877–892

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Chambers AR, Earl JS, Squires CA, Suhot MA (2006) The effect of voids on the flexural fatigue performance of unidirectional carbon fibre composites developed for wind turbine applications. Int J Fatigue 28(10):1389–1398

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  30. Gillespie JW Jr, Byron Pipes R (1984) Compressive strength of composite laminates with interlaminar defects. Compos Struct 2(1):49–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Tavares SS, Caillet-Bois N, Michaud V, Månson JAE (2010) Non-autoclave processing of honeycomb sandwich structures: skin through thickness air permeability during cure. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf 41(5):646–652

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Tavares SS, Caillet-Bois N, Michaud V, Månson JAE (2010) Vacuum-bag processing of sandwich structures: role of honeycomb pressure level on skin–core adhesion and skin quality. Compos Sci Technol 70(5):797–803

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Crump DA, Dulieu-Barton JM, Savage J (2010) The manufacturing procedure for aerospace secondary sandwich structure panels. J Sandw Struct Mater 12(4):421–447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Afendi M, Banks WM, Kirkwood D (2005) Bubble free resin for infusion process. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf 36(6):739–746

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Kim GH, Choi JH, Kweon JH (2010) Manufacture and performance evaluation of the composite hat-stiffened panel. Compos Struct 92(9):2276–2284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Xin C, Li M, Gu Y, Luo J, Zhang Z (2011) Study on the resin flow and fiber compaction of tapered composite laminates during autoclave processing. J Reinf Plast Compos 30(16):1399–1411

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Svanberg JM, Altkvist C, Nyman T (2005) Prediction of shape distortions for a curved composite C-spar. J Reinf Plast Compos 24(3):323–339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Gu Y, Xin C, Li M, Cheng Y, Zhang Z (2012) Resin pressure and resin flow inside tapered laminates during zero-bleeding and bleeding processes. J Reinf Plast Compos 31(4):205–214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Wellhausen WL, Drechsler K (May 23–May 26, 2011) An introduction to combined prepreg and infusion processing. Paper presented at the Society for the Advancement of Material and Process Engineering (SAMPE 2011), Long Beach, CA,

  40. Lowe J (2005) Design and manufacture of textile composites. In: Aerospace applications. Woodhead Publishing Ltd, A. C. Cambridge, UK, pp 405–423

  41. Loos AC, William TFJ (1985) Resin flow during autoclave cure of graphite-epoxy composites. In: Ed DWW (ed) High modulus fiber composites in ground transportation and high volume applications. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp 119–130

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  42. Di Fratta C, Danzi M, Gabathhuler V, Zogg M, Ermanni P (May 21–May 24, 2012) Approach to optimize combined out-of-autoclave prepreg/LCM process for integrated structures. Paper presented at the Society for the Advancement of Material and Processing Engineering (SAMPE) 2012, Baltimore, MD,

  43. Aoki Y, Nagao Y, Takeda SI, Kuratani Y (2011) Integral fabrication of composite fuselage structure using VaRTM prepreg hybrid process. Paper presented at the SAMPE Europe 32nd International Technical Conference & Forum Paris, France, Riehen,

  44. Lukaszewicz D, Ward HJA, Carwyn P, Kevin D (2012) The engineering aspects of automated prepreg layup: history, present and future. Compos Part B 43(3):997–1009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Centea T, Hubert P (2011) Measuring the impregnation of an out-of-autoclave prepreg by micro-CT. Compos Sci Technol 71(5):593–599

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Mortimer S, Smith MJ (2010) Product development for out-of-autoclave (O.O.A.) manufacture of aerospace structure. Paper presented at the SAMPE 2010, Seattle, WA,

  47. Ridgard C (2009) Out of autoclave composite technology for aerospace, defense and space structures. Paper presented at the SAMPE 2009., Baltimore, MD,

  48. Tavares SS, Michaud V, Månson JAE (2010) Assessment of semi-impregnated fabrics in honeycomb sandwich structures. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf 41(1):8–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Bryan ML (2007) Gas transport in out-of-autoclave prepreg laminates. University of British Columbia, Vancouver

  50. Product Information Advanced Composite Group (ACG) MTM44-1 (2011). Document number PDS1189/02.11/7b.

  51. Product information Cytec 5320, Revision 1.3-03.18.09 (2009).

  52. Li Y, Li M, Zhang Z, Gu Y (2009) Numerical analysis of parametric effects on consolidation of angle-bended composite laminates. Polym Compos 30(10):1510–1516

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Xin CB, Gu YZ, Li M, Luo J, Li YX, Zhang ZG (2011) Experimental and numerical study on the effect of rubber mold configuration on the compaction of composite angle laminates during autoclave processing. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf 42(10):1353–1360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Johnson A, Hubert P, Fernlund G, Vaziri R, Poursartip A (1996) Process modeling of composite structures employing a virtual autoclave concept. Sci Eng Compos Mater 5:235–252

    Google Scholar 

  55. Gutowski TG, Cai Z, Bauer S, Boucher D, Kingery J, Wineman S (1987) Consolidation experiments for laminate composites. J Compos Mater 21(7):650–669

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. James K (2009) Processing composite sandwich structures using out-of-autoclave technology. McGill University, Montreal

  57. Radford DW (1995) Volume fraction gradient induced warpage in curved composite plates. Compos Eng 5(7):923–934

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Xin C, Gu Y, Li M, Li Y, Zhang Z (2011) Online monitoring and analysis of resin pressure inside composite laminate during zero-bleeding autoclave process. Polym Compos 32(2):314–323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Lynch K, Hubert P, Poursartip A (1999) Use of a simple, inexpensive pressure sensor to measure hydrostatic resin pressure during processing of composite laminates, vol 20. vol 4. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, ETATS-UNIS

  60. Eom Y, Boogh L, Michaud V, Sunderland P, Månson J-A (2001) Stress-initiated void formation during cure of a three-dimensionally constrained thermoset resin. Polym Eng Sci 41(3):492–503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Michaud V, Tavares SS, Sigg A, Lavanchy S, Manson JA (11–13 July 2006) Low pressure processing of high fiber content composites. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Flow Processes in Composite Materials (FPCM8), Douai, France,

  62. Xueming W, Fuyuan X, Min L, Zuoguang Z (2010) Influence of tool assembly schemes and integral molding technologies on compaction of T-stiffened skins in autoclave process. J Reinf Plast Compos 29(9):1311–1322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Brillant M, Hubert P (17–20 May 2010) Out-of-autoclave processing of complex shape laminates. 54th International SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition Seattle, WA

  64. ACG. (2007) MTM 45-1 matrix resin product data sheet. Advanced Composites Group PDS1205/11.07/3

  65. Hojjati M, Hoa SV (1994) Curing simulation of thick thermosetting composites. Compos Manuf 5(3):159–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M.H. Hassan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hassan, M., Othman, A. & Kamaruddin, S. A review on the manufacturing defects of complex-shaped laminate in aircraft composite structures. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 91, 4081–4094 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0096-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0096-5

Keywords

Navigation