Abstract
The obvious answer to the question “What is a person?” would probably focus on physical characteristics, for example, “An individual member of the human race.” Of the 14 major usages of the word listed in the Oxford Dictionary of the English Language, most refer to such natural, biological attributes.
Research reported in this chapter was largely funded by grants from the Spencer Foundation.
Reprinted with permission in W. Damon (EiC) Handbook of Child Psychology, R. Lerner (Ed.) Vol. 1. Theoretical models of Human Development, pp 635-685. New York: Wiley © 1997 Wiley
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Notes
- 1.
Quotations not otherwise attributed are taken from interviews the authors and other members of the University of Chicago research team collected in the course of a project entitled Creativity in Later Life, sponsored by the Spencer Foundation (see Csikszentmihalyi 1996).
- 2.
It is worth pointing out again that when the person is defined relationally, as in this chapter, it can be misleading to fall into the familiar use in the terms subject versus object, inner versus outer, and so on. This terminology tends to isolate the person from the world, which is not our intention. On the contrary, it is more consistent with our perspective to say that the “location” of the person is neither inner nor outer, or, perhaps better, is both at once.
- 3.
Our focus here remains on immediate subjective experience, but it is possible to adopt other time frames and perceive the same dialectical tension. In other words, one may overcome the anxiety of an entire week, month, or year by finding a way to build new skills. As mentioned earlier, the same is true of the notion of equilibrium; that is , it can refer to immediate experience or stages that characterize larger periods of time.
- 4.
Although the focus here, as in much of the chapter, is on psychological processes, creativity cannot be reduced to this level.
- 5.
We will have more to say later in the chapter about this interpersonal dynamic, and about how qualities such as agency and communion in children may be nurtured in family interaction. For instance, a mother’s communion has often acted as a buffer for the father’s agency, and vice versa. This traditional, sex-typed alliance is but one ``solution” for creating a family context that spares children the fate of growing up in a home that overemphasizes one or the other quality and thus forces children into one pattern of response. We will return to this observation when considering how early experience within the family may have consequences for attaining complexity in later life. For now, we point out that parents with androgynous parenting styles have reported more enjoyment in parenting (Lamb, 1982).
- 6.
Lerner(1984), in addition, contains an in-depth, multidisciplinary look at human plasticity, its foundation in evolutionary processes, and the developmental importance of flexible self regulation.
- 7.
It is worth noting that this alignment of objectivity and subjectivity with masculine and feminine characteristics is best suited to instrumental domains, where it is men who have traditionally had to learn to accommodate to reality demands; this alignment would often be reversed in expressive, social activities, where women have had to assume more objective modes of self-sacrifice.
- 8.
Too often the word discipline is equated with punishment. The word is a derivation of the Latin discipulus, meaning pupil. This meaning reflects the idea that discipline is about training the mind and character through experience. Insofar as punishment furthers such training or instruction, its meaning is consistent with discipline.
- 9.
If reacting to a “more powerful” father is associated with learning habits of accommodation, then the increasing absence of father involvement in modern homes could help to explain the apparent decline of social integration in many communities.
- 10.
The attachment literature typically describes optimal parenting in terms of a child-centered approach. This is underscored by the fact that most attachment researchers view material insensitivity as a mother's inability to take the perspective of a child (see Ainsworth 1983).
- 11.
Challenges are "discovered" by children when child-centered parents structure the environment in ways that are sensitive to children's interests and thus more conducive to a discovery orientation.
- 12.
Perhaps these two general patterns of socialization—one more suited for attempts to differentiate and "break" with tradition, and one more suited for integrative attempts to "build" on tradition—can help to explain the often-cited emphasis on individuality in the West and on social connection in the East. In addition, flow experience in the West is more often a private thing (e.g., in recreation or leisure), whereas flow in strongly adult-centered cultures (e.g., tribal cultures) is often a matter of public ceremony and ritual (see Turner 1979, on flow and ritual).
- 13.
To the extent that both parenting approaches characterize one home context, a child presumably benefits. It is also worth noting, however, that a synthesis of sorts might take place when a child gets experience with both patterns as a result of different contexts (e.g., home and school), or perhaps as a result of experience with different age playmates—sometimes having to "follow" and accommodate, and sometimes having to "lead" and organize others' efforts.
- 14.
Analogously, one can think of the scientific process as syntelic, as an oscillation between theoretical (subjective) and empirical (objective) modes of "control." emergence of basic human dualisms (e.g., mind/body, self/other, truth/falsity) and the eventual overcoming of such dualisms with full development. The legacy of play can thus be seen in the syntelic character of Baldwin's highest form of thought, aesthetic contemplation. As illustrated earlier, his descriptions of aesthetic modes are remarkably close to contemporary perspectives on post-formal thought processes, and to our remarks on flow experience: "In aesthetic experience the partial insights of intelligence and feeling are mutually conserved and supplemented" (1911, p. 279). His perspective, though, adds insight to the developmental history of such outcomes; in other words, play is germinal of the highest forms of human thought as its syntelic character is elaborated and reinstated on higher levels of organizations.
- 15.
An interesting research hypothesis is that child-centered parenting enhances exploratory play, and adult-centered parenting encourages playful imitation.
- 16.
In Baldwin's terminology, to "play" in adulthood means having aesthetic experiences that allow the reconciliation of the various partial truths (e.g., feeling and intellect, inner and outer).
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Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K. (2014). The Development of the Person: An Experiential Perspective on the Ontogenesis of Psychological Complexity. In: Applications of Flow in Human Development and Education. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9094-9_2
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