Abstract
Foreign language education policies constitute an important aspect of China’s reconstruction of its linguistic and cultural identities in an increasingly globalized world. China’s English language education policies in the past three decades have undergone fluctuations, which can be roughly categorized into the following stages: (1) the opening up of English education from the late 1970s to the mid-1990s, and related to this, the euphoria for learning English. (2) The speeding up of English education from the mid-1990s to the first decade of the new millennium, and related to this, the anxiety regarding “too much time and too little effect.” (3) The slowing down or losing direction as shown in a recent debate over a proposed English education policy reform from 2013 to 2014. Related to this is the fear that English education will have a negative effect on Chinese language proficiency and cultural identity. These changes have been reflected in and constructed by policy related discourses, including those of the national policy makers, education institutions and experts, and ordinary learners and netizens. The above policy and attitudinal fluctuations over 30 years can be contextualized and interpreted as being emblematic of issues in China’s history over the last 150 years. An ambivalent psychological complex towards self and “the West” is revealed, situated in China’s semi-colonial and semi-feudal history, beginning with the Opium Wars in 1840, when China faced foreign invasions and was forced to open its markets and partially give up sovereignty. It was in that context that the ambivalence was developed, i.e., the strong desire for the English language through which new technologies can be learned to strengthen the nation, and the fear that this foreign language will threaten Chinese identity. A brief historical analysis shows that the status of English in China has been fluctuating for the past 150 years. Such ambivalences and fluctuations have become a “habitus” (Bourdieu, P. Language and symbolic power. (J. B. Thompson Ed.; G. Raymond & M. Adamson Trans.). Cambridge: CUP, 1991), i.e., durable “structuring structures” of the collective mind. English has become a screen with two sides: on one side is projected the Chinese dream of becoming strong; and on the other side is projected the nightmare of losing national identity. This self-perpetuating ambivalence helps to explain the fluctuations of China’s English language education policies. In the context of increased globalization, when English is becoming a de-territorialized resource, the habitual defense mechanism is no longer effective, and it may well hinder national and individual development. The durable yet not eternal habitus can be transformed, and alternative strategies are to be conceived. Instead of a screen, English can be taken as a mirror, from which we can perceive our complex needs, desires, and emotions. With a clear self-perception, we can probably be free from compulsory policy and mood swings, feel more confident about our native cultural identity, and be ready to take on the identity of a “dialogical communicator” (Gao, Lang Intercult Commun 14(1):1–17, 2014) in intercultural communication.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Access to the documentary film: http://v.ku6.com/show/CXaHTsDMX3A7QioU.html?nr=1<ExternalRef><RefSource>.
- 2.
Baidu Encyclopaedia (百度百科):http://baike.baidu.com/link?url=DV6uqpqmwshVhaILjd3OhM1UKmBE5r8TgU5nXhlMa-K0_LI5BgpVYfJzwJbZD50OQFM24rtfQuJYVSVEkoFugKhttp://baike.baidu.com/link?url=DV6uqpqmwshVhaILjd3OhM1UKmBE5r8TgU5nXhlMa-K0_LI5BgpVYfJzwJbZD50OQFM24rtfQuJYVSVEkoFugK . Accessed on January 1, 2015. “College English Band 4” (大学英语四级考试).
- 3.
Yesky (天极网): http://news.yesky.com/hot/119/35496119.shtml. Accessed on March 19, 2014. “Vigorous reforms of Senior High and College Entrance Exams in Beijing: English Scores Will Decrease and Chinese Scores Will Increase from 2016” (北京中高考大改革 2016年起降低英语分提高语文分).
- 4.
Sina Guangduang (新浪广东): http://gd.sina.com.cn/qy/news/2014-05-10/07461150.html. Accessed on November 1, 2014. “English out of College Entrance Exam from 2016 Is a Rumor” (2016年英语正式退出新高考纯属网络传言).
- 5.
Library of Law (法律图书馆网): http://www.law-lib.com/law/law_view.asp?id=461340. Accessed on November 1, 2014. “The State Council’s Views on the Implementation of Deepened Enrollment Exam Reform” (国务院关于深化考试招生制度改革的实施意见).
- 6.
China Youth Online (中青在线): http://news.cyol.com/content/2017-03/08/content_15721094.htm. Accessed on May 29, 2017. “A One-Sided Opinion of Removing English from University Entrance Exam? Observation of NPC and CPPCC meetings” (一边倒支持高考取消英语?两会青观察).
- 7.
Yinchuan News (银川新闻网): http://www.ycen.com.cn/jypd/jyzx/201403/t20140305_37344.html. Accessed on March 19, 2014. “Yu Minhong: Support for English Score Reduction in Entrance Exam; No Influence on Training Market” (俞敏洪:支持高考英语降分 不影响培训市场).
- 8.
China Youth Online (中青在线): http://news.cyol.com/content/2017-03/08/content_15721094.htm.
- 9.
Sina Investigation (新浪调查): http://survey.news.sina.com.cn/result/87778.html. Accessed on November 1, 2014. “Top 10 Language Issues of Public Sentiment, 2013” (2013年语言文字舆情十大热点事件评选).
- 10.
Chinese Quora(知乎): http://www.zhihu.com/question/22224453. Accessed on November 1, 2014. “Why Should There Be Changes in College Entrance Exam of English, Regarding Its Form and Weight?” (为什么要改革英语高考考试形式,并调整其在招生录取中的权重?)
- 11.
“师夷长技以制夷”,from Graphic Records of Overseas Countries (《海国图志》)edited by Wei Yuan(魏源). The editing of the serial book started in 1842, and reached 50 volumes in 1852.
- 12.
“中学为体,西学为用”, from “Encouraging Learning”(《劝学篇》) by Zhang Zhidong (1898).
- 13.
Gua Sha is a treatment in traditional Chinese medicine, which commonly leaves red spots of inner bleeding on skin. The movie The Gua Sha Treatment is about Sino-US cultural differences, and intercultural (mis)communication. When the Chinese grandpa performed Gua Sha on his grandson in the US context, the family was sued because of “child abuse”. A chain of intercultural conflicts followed, but were eventually resolved.
References
Adamson, B. (2002). Barbarian as a foreign language: English in China’s schools. World Englishes, 21(2), 231–243.
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1990). In other words (M. Adamson Trans.). Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. (J. B. Thompson Ed.; G. Raymond & M. Adamson Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. (1992). An invitation to reflexive sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cai, J. G. (蔡基刚). (2006). College English teaching: Review, reflection and research (《大学英语教学:回顾、反思和研究》). Shanghai: Fudan University Press.
Cen, J.J. (岑建君). (1998). College English teaching reform should look to the future(大学英语教学改革应着眼于未来). Foreign Language World (《外语界》), 4, 12–17.
Cheng, X. T. (程晓堂). (2014). Thoughts on current adjustment of English language education policies (关于当前英语教育政策调整的思考). Curriculum, Teaching Material and Method (《课程·教材·教法》), 5, 58–64.
Dai, W. D. (戴炜栋). (2001). The phenomenon of “too much time and too little effect” in foreign language teaching (外语教学的”费时低效”现象). Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (《外语与外语教学》), 7, 10–14.
Fairclough, N. (2006). Language and globalization. London: Routledge.
Fromm, E. (1948). Man for himself. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Gao, Y. H. (2001). Foreign language learning: “1+1>2”. Beijing: Peking University Press.
Gao, Y. H. (2009). Sociocultural contexts and English in China: Retaining and reforming the cultural habitus. In J. Lo Bianco, J. Orton, & Y. H. Gao (Eds.), China and English: Globalization and the dilemmas of identity (pp. 56–78). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Gao, Y. H. (2014). Faithful imitator, legitimate speaker, playful creator and dialogical communicator: Shift in English learners’ identity prototypes. Language and Intercultural Communication, 14(1), 1–17.
Gao, Y. H. & Project Group (高一虹等). (2013). College students’ English learning motivation and self-identity development – A four-year longitudinal study (《大学生英语学习动机与自我认同发展—四年五校跟踪研究》). Beijing: Higher Education Press.
Higher Education Research Institute, Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages (Ed.). (1993). (四川外国语学院高等教育研究所编), 1993, Annals of foreign language education in China (《中国外语教育要事录》). Revised and approved by Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education (国家教委高等教育司审订). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Hu, W. Z. (2003). A matter of balance – Reflections on China’s language policy in education. In W. Z. Hu (Ed.), ELT in China 2001 (pp. 107–127). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Hu, Z. L. (胡壮麟). (2002). The issue of “too little effect” regarding English teaching in China (中国英语教学中的”低效”问题). Foreign Language Teaching Abroad (《国外外语教学》), 4, 3–7.
Kachru, B. (1992). The other tongue: English across cultures (2nd ed.). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Lam, A. (2002). English in education in China: Policy changes and learners’ experiences. World Englishes, 21(2), 245–256.
Li, L. Q. (李岚清). (1996). Improve methods and quality of foreign language teaching (改进外语教学方法,提高外语教学水平). Teaching and Teaching Material (《教学与教材研究》), 6, 4–5.
Luo, Z. P. (罗正鹏). (2015). Chinese netizens’ language attitudes towards English in the context of college entrance examination reform (高考英语改革背景下中国网民的英语语言态度). Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University (《天津外国语大学学报》), 6, 57–63.
Mitchell, S. A., & Black, M. J. (1995). Freud and beyond: A history of modern psychoanalytical thought. New York: Basic Books.
O’Regan, J. (2014). English as a global language and the situation of East Asia. Talk at the school of foreign languages, Beijing Normal University. June 4, 2014.
Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shen, L. X. & Gao, Y. H. (沈莉霞、高一虹). (2004). What “Crazy English” means to Chinese students (疯狂英语对于学习者的意义). In Y. H. Gao and Project Group (高一虹等), The social psychology of English learning by Chinese college students (《中国大学生英语学习社会心理》), Chapter 9 (pp. 190–201). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Shen, Q. (沈骑). (2012). Development of foreign language education policies in contemporary East Asia (《当代东亚外语教育政策发展研究》). Beijing: Peking University Press.
Wen, Q. F., & Hu, W. Z. (2007). History and policy of English education in mainland China. In Y. H. Choi & B. Spolsky (Eds.), English education in Asia: History and policies (pp. 1–32). Seoul: AsiaTEFL.
Widdowson, H. (2013). Competence and capability: Rethinking the subject English. The 11th Asia TEFL Conference, Manila October 2013.
Yang, Y. (2000). History of English education in China. ERIC, ED441347.
Zhao, Y., & Campbell, K. P. (1995). English in China. World Englishes, 14(3), 377–390.
Zhu, L.Z. & Yang, A.X. (朱鲁子、杨艾祥). (2004). English learning: Possessed by the devil (《走火入魔的英语》). Changsha: Hunan People’s Press.
Acknowledgement
This chapter is based on an earlier paper in Chinese, “A Mirror for Reflection vs. a Screen for Projection” (投射之 “屏幕”与反观之“镜子”), Foreign Language Learning Theory and Practice (《外语教学理论与实践》) 149:1-7. Efforts are made to update the data and further the discussion. The author would like to thank Professor Roland Sussex and Professor Andy Curtis for their helpful comments, suggestions and editing work during the revision of this paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
GAO, Y. (2018). China’s Fluctuating English Education Policy Discourses and Continuing Ambivalences in Identity Construction. In: Curtis, A., Sussex, R. (eds) Intercultural Communication in Asia: Education, Language and Values. Multilingual Education, vol 24. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69995-0_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69995-0_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-69994-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-69995-0
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)