Abstract
The principle of the X-ray standing wave (XSW) technique has been demonstrated in the 1960s by Boris Batterman at Bell Laboratories employing Bragg diffraction. The main concept of the method is that atoms being photoexcited by an interference field (which can be manipulated in space) instead of by a transient wave. In this way structural information can be obtained by X-ray spectroscopic techniques. Practically dormant for almost 20 years, the method became useful and was successfully exploited with the help of synchrotron radiation. It has meanwhile been combined with different scattering techniques, but in its most important and overwhelming number of applications, the XSW technique is combined with spectroscopy tools based on the photoelectric effect. In this way it reaches spatial resolution down to pm while exploiting the full power of X-ray photon or photoelectron spectroscopy. In this short review, we outline the very basic principles and methods of X-ray standing wave formation and illuminate peculiarities of X-ray spectroscopy excited by an X-ray interference field. We present some examples and applications of XSW in physical science research and comment briefly on future perspectives of the XSW technique when employing high-brightness, coherent synchrotron sources and free electron lasers.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
A. Authier, Dynamical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction. IUCr Monographs on Crystallography (Oxford Science Publications, Oxford, 2001)
T.W. Barbee, W.K. Warburton, X-ray evanescent- and standing-wave fluorescence studies using a layered synthetic microstructure. Mater. Lett. 3, 17–23 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-577X(84)90006-5
B.W. Batterman, Effect of dynamical diffraction in X-ray fluorescence scattering. Phys. Rev. 133, A759–764 (1964). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.133.A759
B. Batterman, H. Cole, Dynamical diffraction of X-rays by perfect crystals. Rev. Mod. Phys. 36, 681–717 (1964). https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.36.681
M.J. Bedzyk, in The X-Ray Standing Wave Technique – Principles and Applications, ed. by J. Zegenhagen, A. Kazimirov (World Scientific, Singapore, 2013), p. 94
M.J. Bedzyk, J.A. Libera, in The X-Ray Standing Wave Technique – Principles and Applications, ed. by J. Zegenhagen, A. Kazimirov (World Scientific, Singapore, 2013), p. 122
M.J. Bedzyk, G.M. Bommarito, J.S. Schildkraut, X-ray standing waves at a reflecting mirror surface. Phys. Rev. Lett. 62, 1376–1379 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.62.1376
M.J. Bedzyk, G.M. Bommarito, M. Caffrey, T.L. Penner, Diffuse-double layer at a membrane-aqueous interface measured with X-ray standing waves. Science 248, 52–56 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2321026
P. Cowan, J.A. Golovchenko, M.F. Robbins, X-ray standing waves at crystal surfaces. Phys. Rev. Lett. 44, 1680–1683 (1980). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.44.1680
M. Drakopoulos, J. Zegenhagen, A. Snigirev, I. Snigireva, M. Hauser, K. Eberl, V.V. Aristov, L. Shabelnikov, V. Yunkin, X-ray standing wave microscopy: chemical microanalysis with atomic resolution. Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 2279–2281 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1506779
J.D. Emery, B. Detlefs, H.J. Karmel, L.O. Nyakiti, D.K. Gaskill, M.C. Hersam, J. Zegenhagen, M.J. Bedzyk, Chemically resolved interface structure of epitaxial graphene on SiC(0001). Phys. Rev. Lett. 111, 215501-1–5 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.215501
A.X. Gray, J. Minar, L. Plucinski, M. Huijben, A. Bostwick, E. Rotenberg, S.-H. Yang, J. Braun, A. Winkelmann, G. Conti, D. Eiteneer, A. Rattanachata, A.A. Greer, J. Ciston, C. Ophus, G. Rijnders, D.H.A. Blank, D. Doennig, R. Pentcheva, J.B. Kortright, C.M. Schneider, H. Ebert, C.S. Fadley, Momentum-resolved electronic structure at a buried interface from soft X-ray standing-wave angle-resolved photoemission. EPL 104, 17004-p1–p6 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1209/0295-5075/104/17004
S.W. Hell, J. Wichmann, Breaking the diffraction resolution limit by stimulated emission: stimulated emission depletion microscopy. Opt. Lett. 19, 780–782 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.19.000780
N. Hertel, G. Materlik, J. Zegenhagen, X-ray standing wave analysis of bismuth implanted in Si(110). Z. Phys. B Condens. Matter 58, 199–204 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01309251
G.J. Jackson, D.P. Woodruff, R.G. Jones, N.K. Singh, A.S.Y. Chan, B.C.C. Cowie, V. Formoso, Following local adsorption sites through a surface chemical reaction: CH3SH on Cu(111). Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 119–122 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.119
A. Kazimirov, J. Zegenhagen, in The X-Ray Standing Wave Technique – Principles and Applications, ed. by J. Zegenhagen, A. Kazimirov (World Scientific, Singapore, 2013), p. 234
A. Kazimirov, L.X. Cao, G. Scherb, L. Cheng, M.J. Bedzyk, J. Zegenhagen, X-ray standing-wave analysis of the rare-earth atomic positions in RBa2Cu3O7−δ thin films. Solid State Commun. 114, 271–276 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-1098(00)00040-5
A. Kazimirov, J. Zegenhagen, T.-L. Lee, M.J. Bedzyk, in The X-Ray Standing Wave Technique – Principles and Applications, ed. by J. Zegenhagen, A. Kazimirov (World Scientific, Singapore, 2013), p. 326
S.-K. Kim, J.B. Kortright, Modified magnetism at a buried CoPd interface resolved with X-ray standing waves. Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 1347–1350 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.86.1347
T.-L. Lee, C. Bihler, W. Schoch, W. Limmer, J. Daeubler, S. Thiess, J. Zegenhagen, Fourier transform imaging of impurities in the unit cells of crystals: Mn in GaAs. Phys. Rev. B. 81, 235202-1–10 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.81.235207
S.C. Lin, C.-T. Kuo, G. Ghiringhelli, Y.Y. Ping, G. de Luca, D. di Castro, N. Brookes, M. Huijben, L. Moreschini, A. Bostwick, J. Kortright, J. Meyer-Ilse, E. Gullikson, A. Taleb-Ibrahimi, J. Rault, S.-H. Yang, L. Braicovich, C. Fadley, Determining the depth distribution of RIXS excitations through standing-wave excitation, APS Meeting Abstracts, A41.008 (2017). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017APS..MARA41008L
G. Materlik, J. Zegenhagen, X-ray standing wave analysis with synchrotron radiation applied for surface and bulk systems. Phys. Lett. 104 A, 47–50 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-9601(84)90587-5
G. Materlik, M. Schmäh, J. Zegenhagen, W. Uelhoff, Structure determination of adsorbates on single crystal electrodes with X-ray standing waves. Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chem. 91, 292–296 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1002/bbpc.19870910411
G. Mercurio, I.A. Makhotkin, I. Milov, Y.Y. Kim, I.A. Zaluzhnyy, S. Dziarzhytski, L. Wenthaus, I.A. Vartanyants, W. Wurth, Towards time-resolved atomic structure determination by X-ray standing waves at a free-electron laser. arXiv:1806.04787v1 [cond-mat.mtrl-sci] 12 June 2018. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1806.04787.pdf
S. Nemš´ak, A. Shavorskiy, O. Karslioglu, I. Zegkinoglou, A. Rattanachata, C.S. Conlon, A. Keqi, P.K. Greene, E.C. Burks, F. Salmassi, E.M. Gullikson, S.-H. Yang, K. Liu, H. Bluhm, C.S. Fadley, Concentration and chemical-state profiles at heterogeneous interfaces with sub-nm accuracy from standing-wave ambient-pressure photoemission. Nat. Commun. 5, 5441 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6441
T. Ohta, H. Sekiyama, Y. Kitajima, H. Kuroda, T. Takahashi, S. Kikuta, Effect of the soft X-ray standing wave fields on the total electron yield spectra from an InP crystal. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 24, L475–L477 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1143/JJAP.24.L475
G. Parratt, Surface studies of solids by total reflection of X-rays. Phys. Rev. 95, 359–369 (1954). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.95.359
E. Sozontov, L.X. Cao, A. Kazimirov, V. Kohn, M. Konuma, M. Cardona, J. Zegenhagen, X-ray standing wave analysis of the effect of isotopic composition on the lattice constants of Si and Ge. Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 5329–5332 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.86.5329
M. Sugiyama, S. Maeyama, S. Heun, M. Oshima, Chemical-state-resolved X-ray standing-wave analysis using chemical shift in X-ray spectra. Phys. Rev. B 51, 14778–14781 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.51.14778
S. Thiess, Interface Structure and Electronic Properties of SrTiO3 and YBa2Cu3O7-delta Crystals and Thin Films, Dissertation, University Hamburg (2007)
S. Thiess, T.-L. Lee, F. Bottin, J. Zegenhagen, Valence band photoelectron emission of SrTiO3 analyzed with X-ray standing waves. Solid State Commun. 150, 553–556 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssc.2010.02.009
S. Thiess, T.-L. Lee, C. Aruta, C.T. Lin, F. Venturini, N. Brookes, B.C.C. Cowie, J. Zegenhagen, Resolving CuO chain and CuO2 plane contributions to the YBa2Cu3O7−δ valence band by standing wave excited hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Phys. Rev. B 92, 075117-1–6 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.92.075117
A.J. Van Bommel, J.E. Crombeen, A. Van Tooren, LEED and Auger electron observations of the SiC(0001) surface. Surf. Sci. 48, 463–472 (1975). https://doi.org/10.1016/0039-6028(75)90419-7
I.A. Vartanyants, J. Zegenhagen, Photoelectric scattering from an X-ray interference field. Solid State Commun. 113, 299–320 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-1098(99)00399-3
M. von Laue, Röntgenstrahl-Interferenzen (Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Becker & ErlerKolm.-Ges., Leipzig, 1941; Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt, 1960)
O. Wiener, Wied. Ann. 40, 203–243 (1890). https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.18902760603
J.C. Woicik, E.J. Nelson, P. Pianetta, Direct measurement of valence-charge asymmetry by X-ray standing waves. Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 773–776 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.773
J.C. Woicik, M. Yekutiel, E.J. Nelson, N. Jacobson, P. Pfalzer, M. Klemm, S. Horn, L. Kronik, Chemical bonding and many-body effects in site-specific X-ray spectra of corundum V2O3. Phys. Rev. B 76, 165101–6 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.76.165101
D.P. Woodruff, D.L. Seymour, C.F. McConville, C.E. Riley, M.D. Crapper, N.P. Prince, A simple X-ray standing wave technique for surface structure determination – theory and an application. Surf. Sci. 195, 237–254 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1016/0039-6028(88)90794-7
J. Zegenhagen, Surface structure determination with X-ray standing waves. Surf. Sci. Rep. 18, 202–271 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-5729(93)90025-K
J. Zegenhagen, T.-L. Lee, S. Thiess, in Hard X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (HAXPES), ed. by J.C. Woicik (Springer, New York, 2016), p. 277
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Zegenhagen, J. (2018). Applications of the X-Ray Standing Wave Technique in Physical Science Research. In: Jaeschke, E., Khan, S., Schneider, J., Hastings, J. (eds) Synchrotron Light Sources and Free-Electron Lasers. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-04507-8_66-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-04507-8_66-1
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-04507-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-04507-8
eBook Packages: Springer Reference Physics and AstronomyReference Module Physical and Materials ScienceReference Module Chemistry, Materials and Physics