Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Perspectives for Biodiversity and Ecosystems

Part of the book series: Environmental Challenges and Solutions ((ECAS))

Abstract

What can cities do to harbour and promote wildlife, to support nature conservation and environmental sustainability, and also to improve people’s relationship to nature, both by direct interventions and by education/communication?

To answer this question a few main lines are followed and linked to each other. These include (1) natural history, (2) ecological aspects, (3) nature management, (4) attractiveness of nature and the affinity to nature, and (5) future perspectives. We reviewed publications relating to three broad scientific disciplines as applied in current urban ecology, namely: (1) natural sciences, (2) engineering/urban planning, and (3) social sciences.

The relationship to nature including urban climate, urban biodiversity and land use, is important for the whole urban life including health. To improve that relationship, it is necessary to have the support of citizens for policies of biodiversity management and protection. This is a promising development; however, in many cases the use of indigenous species and the acceptance of spontaneous developments in vegetation and wildlife within urban areas is hardly getting underway.

Cities are agglomerations of artificial constructions and humans tolerating little space for wildlife. Nevertheless, by use of horticulture, greening of roofs and walls, and species conservation programmes, cities and urban areas can play an important role for wildlife and the survival of rare species inside and outside urban regions. Because of the heterogeneity and the diversity of habitat types which they offer, cities—certainly in intensive farming regions—are regularly more species-rich than comparable rural areas in the surroundings.

Thus, spontaneous natural processes in urban areas should be allowed as much as possible, under conditions such as the safety of citizens and the control of invasive and exotic species. Then, evolution can progress even in urban environments at the interface between natural and cultural processes. In addition, spontaneous natural processes in urban areas give city dwellers the opportunity to experience nature from nearby and to feel connected to natural processes, as happened in the pre-urban past.

Meanwhile, botanical gardens, aquariums and zoos play a vital role for the survival of rare species. Most of the larger institutions are located in cities, where they have more visitors than the ones located in rural areas. Thus, such institutions in cities have a high value for the exchange of information, including education for schoolchildren, simply because of the proximity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alberti M, Marzluff JM, Shulenberger E, Bradley G, Ryan C, Zumbrunnen C (2003) Integrating humans into ecology: opportunities and challenges for studying urban ecosystems. Bioscience [Bioscience] 53(12):1169–1179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alberti M, Correa C, Marzluff JM, Hendry AP, Palkovacs EP, Gotanda KM et al (2017) Global urban signatures of phenotypic change in animal and plant populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114:8951–8956. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1606034114

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allan JR, Venter O, Watson JEM (2017) Temporally inter-comparable maps of terrestrial wilderness and the Last of the Wild. Sci Data 4:170187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aronson MFJ, La Sorte FA, Nilon CH, Katti M, Goddard MA, Lepczyk CA, Warren PS, Williams NSG, Cilliers S, Clarson B, Dobbs C, Dolan R, Hedblom M, Klotz S, Kooijmas JL, Kühn I, MacGregor-Fors I, McDonnell M, Mörtberg U, Pyšek P, Siebert S, Sushinsky J, Werner P, Winter M (2014) A global analysis of the impacts of urbanization on bird and plant diversity reveals key anthropogenic drivers. Proc R Soc B 281(1780):20133330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baabou W, Grunewald N, Ouellet-Plamondon C, Gressot M, Galli A (2017) The ecological footprint of Mediterranean cities: awareness creation and policy implications. Environ Sci Pol 69:94–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barton J, Pretty J (2010) Urban ecology and human health and wellbeing. In: Gaston KJ (ed) Urban ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 202–229

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bundesamt für Naturschutz (ed) (1999) Botanische Gärten und Biodiversität. BfN-Schriftenvertrieb im Landwirtschaftsverlag, Münster

    Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Environment (2014) Guidelines for selecting native species for greening towards biodiversity-conscious greening. Tokyo Metropolitan Government

    Google Scholar 

  • CBS (2012) Built-up area. https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/society/nature-and-environment/green-growth/natural-resources/indicatoren/built-up-area

  • Cervinka R, Röderer K, Hefler E (2011) Are nature lovers happy? On various indicators of well-being and close affinity to nature to nature. J Health Psychol 17(3):379–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105311416873

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cieslewicz D (2008) Ecological footprints of urbanization and sprawl: toward a city ethic. In: Waller DM, Rooney TP (eds) The vanishing present: Wisconsin’s changing lands, waters, and wildlife. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp 381–390

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cilliers SS, Siebert SJ (2012) Urban ecology in Cape Town: South African comparisons and reflections. Ecol Soc 17(3):33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • City of Seattle (2015) Green Stormwater Infrastructure in Seattle: Implementation Strategy 2015–2020

    Google Scholar 

  • City of Seattle (2019) Choosing the right plants. http://www.seattle.gov/utilities/environment-and-conservation/lawn-and-garden/choosing-the-right-plants

  • Clifton K, Ewing R, Knaap G-J, Song Y (2008) Quantitative analysis of urban form: a multidisciplinary review. J Urban 1(1):17–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549170801903496

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cochard A (2017) Influence des facteurs paysagers sur la flore des habitats herbacés sous influence urbaine: approches taxonomiques et fonctionnelles. Biodiversité et Ecologie. Thèse. Agrocampus Ouest, l’Université Bretagne Loire

    Google Scholar 

  • COM (2009) Composite Report on the Conservation Status of Habitat Types and Species as required under Article 17 of the Habitats Directive. Report from the commission to the Council and the European Parliament. 358 final

    Google Scholar 

  • Connop S, Nash C (2018) Blandscaping that erases local ecological diversity. https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2018/01/09/blandscaping-erases-local-ecological-diversity/

  • Costanza R, Steffen W, Hibbard K, Crumley C, Leemans R, Graumlich L, Dearing JA, Redman C, Schimel D, Cleveland CJ (eds) (2007) Evolution of the human-environment relationship. D-Lib Magazine

    Google Scholar 

  • Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (2016) Announcing the world’s 36th biodiversity hotspot: the North American Coastal Plain. http://www.cepf.net/news/top_stories/Pages/Announcing-the-Worlds-36th-Biodiversity-Hotspot.aspx

  • Davis K (1955) The origins and growth of urbanization in the world. Am J Sociol 60(5):429–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Day JW, Hall C (ed) (2016) America’s most sustainable cities and regions: surviving the 21st-century megatrends. Copernicus Books, Springer

    Google Scholar 

  • Dearborn DC, Kark S (2010) Motivations for conserving urban biodiversity. Conserv Biol 24:432–440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denters T (1994) Het urbaan district: een eigen district voor de stadsflora. Natura 3:65–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Denters T (1998) De flora van het Urbaan district. Gorteria 24:65–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Denters T (2007) The Urban district, a biogeographical acquisition. In: de Jong TM (ed) Landscape ecology in the Dutch context. Zeist, pp 245–258

    Google Scholar 

  • Denters T (2020) Stadsflora van de Lage Landen. Fontaine Uitgevers. 448 p. ISBN 9789059569737

    Google Scholar 

  • Di Castri FD (1989) History of biological invasions with special emphasis on the Old World. In: Drake JA, Mooney HJ, Di Castri F, Groves RH, Kruger FJ, Rejm’anek M, Williamson M (eds) Biological invasions: a global perspective. Wiley, Chichester, pp 2–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Diemont WH, Heijman WJM, Siepel H, Webb NR 2013 Economy and ecology of heathlands. KNNV Publishing. ISBN 9789050114615

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinerstein E, Olson D, Joshi A, Vynne C, Burgess ND, Wikramanayake E et al (2017) An ecoregion-based approach to protecting half the terrestrial realm. Bioscience 67:534–545

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy GA, Chown SL (2016) Urban warming favours C4 plants in temperate European cities. J Ecol 104(6):1618–1626. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12652

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Early R et al (2016) Global threats from invasive alien species in the twenty-first century and national response capacities. Nat Commun 7:12485

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Egerton FN (2001) A history of the ecological sciences: early Greek origins. Bull Ecol Soc Am 82(1):93–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis EC, Ramankutty N (2008) Putting people in the map: anthropogenic biomes of the world. Front Ecol Environ 6(8):439–447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ELO (2009) Agriculture and biodiversity. European Landowners’ Organisation, European Crop Protection Organisation, BASF SE, RIFCON GmbH, Brussels

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission (2010) Cities occupy 0.5 per cent of the world’s total land. Science for Environment Policy. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/179na4_en.pdf

  • Ferenc M, Sedlacek O, Fuchs R, Dinetti M, Fraissinet M, Storch D (2014) Are cities different? Patterns of species richness and beta diversity of urban bird communities and regional species assemblages in Europe. Global Ecol Biogeogr 23:479–489

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox S (2012) Urbanization as a global historical process: theory and evidence from sub-Saharan Africa. Popul Dev Rev 38(2):285–310

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frantz C, Mayer FS, Norton C, Rock M (2005) There is no ‘I’ in nature: the influence of self-awareness on close affinity to nature to nature. J Environ Psychol 25(4):427–436

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuller RA, Irvine KN (2010) Interactions between people and nature in urban environments. In: Gaston KJ (ed) Urban ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 134–171

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Fuller RA, Irvine KN, Davies Z, Armsworth PRG, Gaston KJ (2012) Interactions between people and birds in urban landscapes. In: Lepczyk CA, Warren PS (eds) Urban bird ecology and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 45, pp 249–266

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Furlan S (2004) Paisagens sustentáveis: São Paulo e sua cobertura vegetal. In: Carlos AFA, Oliveira AU Geografias de São Paulo: a metrópole do século XXI. São Paulo: Contexto

    Google Scholar 

  • Giles-Corti B, Broomhall MH, Knuiman M, Collins C, Douglas K, Ng K, Lange A, Donovan RJ (2005) Increasing walking: How important is distance to, attractiveness, and size of public open space? Am J Prev Med 28:169–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grauman JV (1977) Orders of magnitude of the world’s urban population in history. Population Bulletin of the United Nations No. 8 - 1976. New York: United Nations

    Google Scholar 

  • Groffman PM, Cavender-Bares J, Bettez ND, Grove JM, Hall SJ, Heffernan JB, Hobbie SE, Larson KL, Morse JL, Neill C, Nelson K (2014) Ecological homogenization of urban USA. Front Ecol Environ 12:74–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grove R (1987) Early themes in African conservation: the Cape in the nineteenth century. In: Anderson D, Grove R (eds) Conservation in Africa: people, policies and practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 21–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Haaland S, Blust G de Diemont H, Jansen J (2004) Het paarse landschap. Utrecht/Mechelen (België): KNNV/Natuurpunt. ISBN 9050111874 – 172

    Google Scholar 

  • Haeupler H (1997) Zur Phytodiversität Deutschlands: Ein Baustein zur globalen Biodiversitätsbilanz. Osnabrücker Naturwiss Mitt 23:123–133

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes PM, Rebelo AG, Dorse C, Wood J (2012) Can Cape Town’s unique biodiversity be saved? Balancing conservation imperatives and development needs. Ecol Soc 17(2):28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howell AJ, Dopko RL, Passmore H-A, Buro K (2011) Nature close affinity to nature: associations with well-being and mindfulness. Personal Individ Differ 51(2):166–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hulme PE (2009) Trade, transport and trouble: managing invasive species pathways in an era of globalization. J Appl Ecol 2009(46):10–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Humphries AM, Govaerts R, Ficinski SZ, Nic Lughadha EM, Vorontsova MS (2019) Global dataset shows geography and life form predict modern plant extinction and rediscovery. Nat Ecol Evol 3:1043–1047. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0906-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutabarat PWK, Wilkie P (2018) Sibbaldia: The Journal of Botanic Garden Horticulture, No. 16:141–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Ives CD, Lentini PE, Threlfall CG, Ikin K, Shanahan DF, Garrard GE, Bekessy SA, Fuller RA, Mumaw L, Rayner L, Rowe R, Valentine LE, Kendal D (2016) Cities are hotspots for threatened species. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 25(1):117–126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jansen J (2009) Management plans as a way of managing conflicts? In Young J, Watt A & Carrs D (Eds) Managing conflicts affecting biodiversity, ecosystems and human well-being in a changing environment: 9. Report of an econference. Edinburgh: Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, and Natural Environment Research Council

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansen J (2011) Managing Natura 2000 in a changing world: The case of the Serra da Estrela. PhD Thesis Radboud University Nijmegen. 281 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansen J, Castro P, Costa L (2013) Economic-ecologic interactions in the Serra da Estrela, Portugal. Chapter 4, p. 66-90. In: Diemont WH, Heijman WJM, Siepel H & Webb NR (eds.) Economy and ecology of heathlands. KNNV Publishing, Zeist. 462p. ISBN 9789050114615. DOI: doi:https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004277946_006

  • Janssen JAM, Rodwell JS, García Criado M, Gubbay S, Haynes T, Nieto A, Sanders N, Landucci F, Loidi J, Ssymank A, Tahvanainen T, Valderrabano M, Acosta A, Aronsson M, Arts G, Attorre F, Bergmeier E, Bijlsma R-J, Bioret F, Biţă-Nicolae C, Biurrun I, Calix M, Capelo J, Čarni A, Chytrý M, Dengler J, Dimopoulos P, Essl F, Gardfjell H, Gigante D, Giusso del Galdo G, Hájek M, Jansen F, Jansen J Kapfer J, Mickolajczak A, Molina JA, Molnár Z, Paternoster D, Piernik A, Poulin B, Renaux B, Schaminée JHJ, Šumberová K, Toivonen H, Tonteri T, Tsiripidis I, Tzonev R, Valachovič M (2016) European Red List of Habitats. Part 2. Terrestrial and freshwater habitats. European Commission ISBN 978-92-79-61588-7, doi: https://doi.org/10.2779/091372

  • Jones KR, Klein C, Halpern BS, Venter O, Grantham H, Kuempel CD, Shumway N, Friedlander AM, Possingham HP, Watson JEM (2018) The location and protection status of Earth’s diminishing marine wilderness. Curr Biol 28:2506–2512

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser FG, Roczen N, Bogner FX (2008) Competence formation in environmental education: advancing ecology-specific rather than general abilities. Umweltpsychologie 12(2):56–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Kals E, Schumacher D, Montada L (1999) Emotional affinity toward nature as a motivational basis to protect nature. Environ Behav 31(2):178–202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karvonen A, Yocom K (2011) The civics of urban nature: enacting hybrid landscapes. Environ Plan A 43:1305–1322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein Goldewijk K, Beusen A, Janssen P (2010) Long term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way, HYDE 3.1. The Holocene 20(4):565–573

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klemm W, Heusinkveld BG, Lenzholzer S, Jacobs MH, Hoved BV (2015) Psychological and physical impact of urban green spaces on outdoor thermal comfort during summertime in The Netherlands. Build Environ 83:120–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kowarik I (2003) Human agency in biological invasions: secondary releases foster naturalisation and population expansion of alien plant species. Biol Invasions 5:293–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn I, Brandl R, Klotz S (2004) The flora of German cities is naturally species rich. Evol Ecol Res 6(5):749–764

    Google Scholar 

  • Kühn I, Wolf J, Schneider A (2017) Is there an urban effect in alien plant invasions? Biol Invasions 19:3505–3513

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lant CL, Ruhl JB, Kraft SE (2008) The tragedy of ecosystem services. Bioscience 58(10):969–974

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liefländer AK, Fröhlich G, Bogner FX, Wesley Schultz P (2013) Promoting close affinity to nature with nature through environmental education. Environ Educ Res 19(3):370–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LinnÌus C (1753) Species Plantarum. Salvius, Stockholm

    Google Scholar 

  • Lososová Z, Chytrý M, Danihelka J, Tichý L, Ricotta C (2016) Biotic homogenization of urban floras by alien species: the role of species turnover and richness differences. J Veg Sci 27:452–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luck GW (2007) A review of the relationships between human population density and biodiversity. Biol Rev 82(2007):607–645

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin-Albarracin VL et al (2015) Replacement of native by non-native animal communities assisted by human introduction and management on Isla Victoria, Nahuel Huapi National Park. PeerJ 3:e1328. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer FS, Frantz CM, Bruehlman-Senecal E, Dolliver K (2009) Why is nature beneficial?: The role of close affinity to nature to nature. Environ Behav 41:607–643. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916508319745

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald RI, Beatley T, Elmqvist T (2018) The green soul of the concrete jungle the urban century, the urban psychological penalty, and the role of nature. Sustain Earth:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42055-018-0002-5

  • McKinney ML (2002) Urbanization, biodiversity and conservation. Bioscience 52:883–890

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinney ML (2006) Urbanisation as a major cause of biotic homogenisation. Biol Conserv 127:247–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinney ML (2008) Effects of urbanization on species richness: a review of plants and animals. Urban Ecosyst 11:161–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinney ML, Lockwood JL (1999) Biotic homogenization: a few winners replacing many losers in the next mass extinction. Biol Conserv 127:247–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mello-Théry N (2011) Conservação de áreas naturais em São Paulo. Estudos Avançados 25(71):175–188. Recuperado de http://www.revistas.usp.br/eav/article/view/10605

  • Meyerson LA, Mooney HA (2007) Invasive Alien species in an era of globalization. Front Ecol Environ 5(4):199–208. https://doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[199,IASIAE]2.0.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mittermeier RA, Turner WR, Larsen FW, Brooks TW, Gascon C (2011) Global biodiversity conservation: the critical role of hotspots. In: Zachos FE, Habel JC (eds) Biodiversity hotspots: distribution and protection of conservation priority areas. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 3–22

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Moore G, Steward A, Clemants S, Glenn S, Ma J (2004) An overview of the New York Metropolitan Flora Project. Urban habitats 1(1). ISSN 1541-7115

    Google Scholar 

  • Mucina L et al (2016) Vegetation of Europe: hierarchical floristic classification of vascular plant, bryophyte, lichen, and algal communities. Appl Veg Sci 19(Suppl. 1):3–264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NASA SEDAC (2011) Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project, Version 1 (GRUMPv1): Population Density Grid. NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications, Palisades, NY. http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/collection/grump-v1

    Google Scholar 

  • National Parks Board (2009) Nature conservation masterplan. https://www.nparks.gov.sg/biodiversity/our-national-plan-for-conservation/nature-conservation-masterplan

  • Nilon CH, Aronson MFJ, Ciliers SS, Dobbs C, Frazee LJ et al (2017) Planning for the future of urban biodiversity: a global review of city-scale initiatives. Bioscience 67:332–342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nowak Da Costa J, Bielecka E, Calka B (2017) Uncertainty quantification of the Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project over Polish census data. 10th International Conference “Environmental Engineering”. Vilnius, Lithuania. doi:https://doi.org/10.3846/enviro.2017.221

  • Nunn N, Quian N (2010) The Columbian exchange: a history of disease, food, and ideas. J Econ Perspect 24(2):163–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olden JD (2006) Biotic homogenization: a new research agenda for conservation biogeography. J Biogeogr 33:2027–2039

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyšek P (1998) Alien and native species in Central European urban floras: a quantitative comparison. J Biogeogr 25:155–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rastandeh A, Brown DK, Zari MP (2018) Site selection of urban wildlife sanctuaries for safeguarding indigenous biodiversity against increased predator pressures. Urban For Urban Green 32:21–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rees W, Wackernagel M (1996) Urban ecological footprints Why cities cannot be sustainable—And why they are a key to sustainability. Environ Impact Assess Rev 16:223–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ricketts T, Imhoff M (2003) Biodiversity, urban areas, and agriculture: locating priority ecoregions for conservation. Conserv Ecol 8(2):1. http://www.consecol.org/vol8/iss2/art1

    Google Scholar 

  • Riffat S, Powell R, Aydin D (2016) Future cities and environmental sustainability. Future Cities Environ 2:1–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivkin LR, Santangelo JS, Alberti M, Aronson MF, de Keyzer CW, Diamond SE, Fortin M, Frazee LJ, Gorton AJ, Hendry AP, Liu Y, Losos JB, MacIvor JS, Martin RA, McDonnell M, Miles LS, Munshi-South J, Ness R, Newman AE, Stothart MR, Theodorou P, Thompson KA, Verrelli BC, Whitehead A, Winchell KM, Johnson MT (2019) A roadmap for urban evolutionary ecology. Evol Appl 12:384–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts N, Fyfe RM, Woodbridge J et al (2018) Europe’s lost forests: a pollen-based synthesis for the last 11,000 years. Sci Rep 8:716. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-18646-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rupprecht CDD (2017) Ready for more-than-human? Measuring urban residents’ willingness to coexist with animals. Fennia 195(2):142–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schilthuizen M (2017) Darwin comes to town. How the urban jungle drives evolution. 304 p. Picador. ISBN-10: 1250127823; ISBN-13: 978-1250127822

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider A, Friedl MA, Potere D (2009) A new map of global urban extent from MODIS data. Environ Res Lett 4:044003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider A, Friedl MA, Potere D (2010) Mapping global urban areas using MODIS 500-m data: new methods and datasets based on Urban ecoregions. Remote Sens Environ 114:1733–1746

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz PW (2002) Inclusion with nature: The psychology of human-nature relations. In: Schmuck PW, Schultz WP (eds) Psychology of sustainable development. Kluwer Academic, Norwell, MA, pp 62–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2012) Cities and biodiversity outlook. ISBN 92-9225-432-2

    Google Scholar 

  • Seebens H, Blackburn TM, Dyer EE, Genovesi P, Hulme PE, Jeschke JM, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C et al (2018) The global rise in emerging alien species results from increased accessibility of new source pools. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115(10):E2264–E2273

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff D et al (2013) Impacts of biological invasions: what’s what and the way forward. Trends Ecol Evol 28:58–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon D (2016) Rethinking sustainable cities. Policy Press, 200 p. ISBN-10: 9781447332848

    Google Scholar 

  • Sing KW, Luo J, Wang WZ, Jaturas N, Soga M, Yang X, Dong H, Wilson JJ (2019) Ring roads and urban biodiversity: distribution of butterflies in urban parks in Beijing city and correlations with other indicator species. Sci Rep 9:1–9. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-43997-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Small C, Nicholls RJ (2003) A global analysis of human settlement in coastal zones. J Coast Res 19(3):584–599

    Google Scholar 

  • Sukopp H (1997) History of the flora and vegetation of Berlin and their conservation. Journal d’agriculture traditionnelle et de botanique appliquée 39(2):265–283

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sukopp H (2002) On the early history of urban ecology in Europe. Preslia, Praha 74:373–393

    Google Scholar 

  • Sukopp H (2003) Flora and vegetation reflecting the urban history of Berlin. Erde 134(3):295–316

    Google Scholar 

  • Thijsse JP (1941) Instructieve plantsoenen. De Levende Natuur 46(7):121–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas CD (2017) Inheritors of the Earth: how nature is thriving in an age of extinction. 320 p. Public Affairs. ISBN-10: 1610397274; ISBN-13: 978-1610397278

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas CD, Palmer G (2015) Non-native plants add to the British flora without negative consequences for native diversity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112:4387–4392. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1423995112

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Torrey BB (2004) Urbanization: an environmental force to be reckoned with. http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2004/UrbanizationAnEnvironmentalForcetoBeReckonedWith.aspx

  • Tüxen R (1947) Der Pflanzensoziologische Garten in Hannover und seine bisherige Entwicklung. Jahresbericht der Naturhistorischen Gesellschaft zu Hannover 94–98:113–287

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication

  • United Nations (2018) United Nations population division. World urbanization prospects: 2018 revision. https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html

  • Van Gemert G (2019) Werken aan biodiversiteitsherstel op Nijmeegse campus. Vakblad Groen 75(07/08):38–41

    Google Scholar 

  • van Kluenen M et al (2015) Global exchange and accumulation of non-native plants. Nature 525(7567):100–103

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Von Glasow R, Jickells TD, Baklanov A, Carmichael GR, Church TM, Gallardo L, Hughes C, Kanakidou M, Liss PS, Mee L, Raine R, Ramachandran P, Ramesh R, Sundseth K, Tsunogai U, Uematsu M, Zhu T (2013) Megacities and large urban agglomerations in the coastal zone: interactions between atmosphere, land, and marine ecosystems. Ambio 42:13–28

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wackernagel M, Kitzes J, Moran D, Goldfinger S, Thomas M (2006) The ecological footprint of cities and regions: comparing resource availability with resource demand. Environ Urban 18:103–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walz U, Stein C (2014) Indicators of hemeroby for the monitoring of landscapes in Germany. J Nat Conserv 22(2014):279–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2014.01.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weller RJ, Huang C, Padgett Kjaersgaard SR, Drozdz Z, Dong N (2018) Hotspot cities: identifying peri-urban conflict zones in the world’s biodiversity hotspots. Penn Institute for Urban Research, University of Pennsylvania. http://penniur.upenn.edu/uploads/media/Weller.pdf

  • Westhoff V (1949) Schaakspel met de natuur. Natuur en Landschap 3(2):54–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Westhoff V (1954) De plantensociologische tuin in Hannover. De Wandelaar in Weer en Wind 22(5):109–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Westhoff V (1971) De botanische tuin in de samenleving (with English summary). Rede, uitgesproken bij de plechtigheid ter gelegenheid van de officiële opening van de Hortus Botanicus Noviomagensis (Botanische Tuin Nijmegen) op donderdag 30 september 1971. Nijmegen, Fac. W & N, 46p

    Google Scholar 

  • Westhoff V (1983) Man’s attitude towards vegetation. In: Holzner N, Werger MJA, Ikusima I (eds) Man’s impact on vegetation. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp 7–24

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wikramanayake E, Dinerstein E, Loucks CJ, Olson DM, Morrison J, Lamoreux J, McKnight M, Hedao P (2002) Terrestrial ecoregions of the indo-pacific: a conservation assessment. Island Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Wittig R (2004) The origin and development of the urban flora of Central Europe. Urban Ecosyst 7(4):323–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-005-6833-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfram M (2016) The role of cities in sustainability transitions: new perspectives for science and policy. In Kim E, Kim BHS (eds) Quantitative regional economic and environmental analysis for sustainability in Korea, New frontiers in regional science: Asian perspectives 25. doi https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0300-4_1

  • Wolschke-Bulmahn J (1999) The search for ‘ecological goodness’ among garden historians. In: Conan M (Hg.) Perspectives on garden histories, Dumbarton oaks colloquium on the history of landscape architecture, Band 21, Washington, DC, pp 161–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeo J-H, Neo H (2010) Monkey business: human–animal conflicts in urban Singapore. Soc Cult Geogr 11(7):681–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2010.508565

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Plant Ecology and Physiology, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

    Jan Jansen

  2. Department of Ecology and Environmental Education, University of Flensburg (EUF), Flensburg, Germany

    Carsten Hobohm

Authors
  1. Jan Jansen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Carsten Hobohm
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jan Jansen .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Ecology and Environmental Education, University of Flensburg (EUF), Flensburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany

    Carsten Hobohm

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Jansen, J., Hobohm, C. (2021). Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection. In: Hobohm, C. (eds) Perspectives for Biodiversity and Ecosystems. Environmental Challenges and Solutions. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57710-0_18

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation