Abstract
Grassland is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth. It provides important goods and services such as animal fodder (e.g. hay), animal products (e.g. meat, milk and leather), but also ecosystem services such as the contribution to climate regulation, and landscape aesthetics. Last but not least it harbours a rich biodiversity.
Grassland ecosystems are declining in quantity and diversity due to expansion of cropland, urban areas, tree plantations, use of mineral fertilisers and pesticides, suppression of natural fires, overgrazing, undergrazing, intensification of use and cessation of use. Decisions made at regional scales are frequently not strong enough to promote sustainable grassland utilisation and protection of habitats and biodiversity, neither at regional nor at continental to global scales.
We focus on examples from different regions on Earth, the Brazilian Cerrado, Kazakh steppe, and semi-natural grasslands in Europe, and assess environmental conditions including human influences resulting in efficient nature conservation measures. We selected these examples because of their different geographical position and history of use. The examples face very different environmental conditions and evolutionary histories. However, they have in common that the biomass regularly is reduced by grazing, mowing, drought or fire. Without reduction of biomass the biodiversity of many grassland habitats is decreasing and the habitat is replaced by the growth of woody plants and forest.
With this contribution we want to advocate the discussion about a paradigm shift. For many ecosystems the classic assumption of optimal nature protection is to promote wilderness and natural processes, and human influence should be reduced or totally excluded. However, meanwhile many examples show that human influence under certain conditions and depending on the intensity can support nature conservation and biodiversity sustainability. Furthermore, usage means trade, exchange of money and therefore upvaluation of the system compared with a habitat that is not used, and, thus, has no economic value for the people.
We discuss the question how intense human influence should be for grassland conservation by focusing on the first and main goal of the Convention on Biological Diversity, i.e. survival of all biota on Earth and stopping the loss of biodiversity. Therefore, if human activities support this goal anthropo-zoogenic influence may be wellcome. In the case of many grassland habitats moderate human influence might promote both the protection and survival of biodiversity and economic aspects that can be translated in payments, i.e. human values.
The examples show that the policy at national or supranational scales most probably will decide about the fate of grasslands outside and inside of national parks and other nature reserves.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abdulina SA (1999) Checklist of vascular plants of Kazakhstan. Ministry of Science, Almaty
Abreu RCR, Hoffmann WA, Vasconcelos HL, Pilon NA, Rossato DR, Durigan G (2017) The biodiversity cost of carbon sequestration in tropical savanna. Sci Adv 3:e1701284
Archer D (2010) The global carbon cycle. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Bar-On YM, Phillips R, Milo R (2018) The biomass distribution on Earth. PNAS 115(25):6506–6511. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1711842115
BMU & BfN [Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit & Bundesamt für Naturschutz] (Hrsg.) (2010) Naturbewusstsein in Deutschland 2009. Berlin und Bonn
Boeker P (1957) Basenversorgung und Humusgehalte von Böden der Pflanzengesellschaften des Grünlandes. Decheniana Beih 4:1–101
Bonanomi J, Tortato FR, Santos R, Penha JM, Bueno A S, Peres CA (2019) Protecting forests at the expense of native grasslands: Land-use policy encourages open-habitat loss in the Brazilian Cerrado biome. Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation. 17:26-31
Bond-Lamberty B, Thomson A (2010) Temperature-associated increases in the global soil respiration record. Nature 464(7288):579–582
Bosshard A (1999) Renaturierung artenreicher Wiesen auf nährstoffreichen Böden. Dissertationes Botanicae 303, 194 pp
Brady E (2003) Aesthetics of the natural environment. Edeinburgh University Press, Edinburgh
Briani DC, Palma ART, Vieira EM, Henriques RPB (2004) Post-fire succession of small mammals in the Cerrado of Central Brazil. Biodivers Conserv 13(5):1023–1037
Bruchmann I, Hobohm C (2010) Halting the loss of biodiversity: Endemic vascular plants in grassland of Europe. Grassland Sci 15:776–778
Buchgraber K, Gindl G (2009) Zeitgemäße Grünlandbewirtschaftung. 2. Aufl. 2004 (Nachdruck 2009). Graz. 192 S
Bundesamt für Naturschutz (2014) Grünland-Report. Alles im Grünen Bereich? https://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/presse/2014/PK_Gruenlandpapier_30.06.2014_final_layout_barrierefrei.pdf
Damasceno G, Souza L, Pivello VR, Gorgone-Barbosa E, Giroldo PZ, Fidelis A (2018) Impact of invasive grasses on Cerrado under natural regeneration. Biol Invasions 20:3621–3629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-018-1800-6
Durigan G, de Siqueira MF, Franco GADC (2007) Threats to the Cerrado remnants of the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Sci Agric 64:355–363
DWD (2002) Weltklima: Die CD des Deutschen Wetterdienstes mit Klimadaten von 1400 Orten aus 200 Ländern weltweit. Offenbach
Dziewulska A (1990) The spatial differentiation of grasslands in Europe. In: Breymeyer AI (ed) Managed grasslands: regional studies, Ecosystems of the world, vol 17A, pp 1–13
Ellenberg H (1996) Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen. 5. Aufl. Stuttgart. 1096 S
Ellenberg H, Mueller-Dombois D (1967) Tentative physiognomic-ecological classification of plant formations of the Earth. Berichte des Geobotanischen Institutes der Eidg. Techn. Hochschule, Stiftung Rübel 37:21–55
Essl F, Dullinger S, Plutzar C, Willner W, Rabitsch W (2011) Imprints of glacial history and current environment on correlations between endemic plant and invertebrate species richness. J Biogeogr 38:604–614
European Environment Agency (2012) Protected areas in Europe - an overview. EEA Reports 5/2012, 130p
European Environment Agency (2017) Landscapes in transition: an account of 25 years of land cover change in Europe. EEA Report 10/2017, 84p
Faber-Langendoen D, Josse C (2010) World grasslands and biodiversity patterns. NatureServe, Arlington
FAO (ed) (2018) World livestock: transforming the livestock sector through the sustainable development goals, Rome
Fidelis A, Alvarado ST, Barradas ACS, Pivello VR (2018) The year 2017: megafires and management in the cerrado. Fire 2018(1):49. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire1030049
Finck P, Heinze S, Raths U, Riecken U, Ssymank A (2017) Rote Liste der gefährdeten Biotoptypen Deutschlands. Dritte fortgeschriebene Fassung 2017. Natursch Biol Vielf 156, 637 S
Gibson DJ (2009) Grasses and grassland ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Gruber N, Sarmiento JL (2002) Large-scale biogeochemical/physical interactions in elemental cycles. In: Robinson AR, JJ MC, Rothschild BJ (eds) The sea: biological-physical interactions in the oceans, vol 12. Wiley, New York, pp 337–399
Gruber N, Gloor M, Mikaloff Fletcher SE, Doney SC, Dutkiewicz S, Follows MJ, Gerber M, Jacobson AR, Joos F, Lindsay K, Menemenlis D, Mouchet A, Müller SA, Sarmiento JL & Takanashi T 2009. Oceanic sources, sinks, and transport of atmospheric CO2. Global Biogeochem Cycles 23 (GB1005). doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GB003349
Grund K, Weiß C (2011) Wiesen und Weiden Europas – schwindender Schatz. Euronatur 1:12–15
Heinrich W (1992) Thüringen und Hessen: Geschichte, Botanik und Geschichte der Botanik - ein Grußwort zur Magerrasentagung in Marburg 1991. Botanik u. Naturschutz Hessen, Beih. 4 “Magerrasenschutz”: 14–18
Hejcman M, Hejcmanová P, Pavlů V, Beneš J (2013) Origin and history of grasslands in Central Europe – a review. Grass Forage Sci 68(3):345–363
Henwood WD (2010) Toward a strategy for the conservation and protection of the world’s temperate grasslands. Great Plains Res 20:121–134
Heptner VG, Sludskij AA (1992) Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola [Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)]. Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation, Washington, DC, pp 95–202
Hirata M, Ogawa R, Gebremedhin BG, Takenaka K (2018) The recent decrease in the number of livestock and its cause for the farmers in the Ethiopian highlands - from the cases in Kilite Awlaelo district in Eastern zone of Tigray region. J Arid Land Stud 28:1–15
Hobohm C (ed) (2014) Endemism in vascular plants. In: Werger MJA (ed) Plant and Vegetation 9. Springer, Dordrecht
Hobohm C, Bruchmann I (2009) Endemische Gefäßpflanzen und ihre Habitate in Europa - Plädoyer für den besonderen Schutz des Graslandes. Berichte der RTG 21:142–161
James SR, Dennell RW, Gilbert AS, Lewis HT, Gowlett JAJ, Lynch TF, McGrew WC, Peters CR, Pope GG, Stahl AB, James SR (1989) Hominid use of fire in the lower and middle Pleistocene: a review of the evidence. Curr Anthropol 3(1):1–26
Janišová M, Mucina L, Da Silva Júnior MC, Durigan G, Pavan Sabino G, José Paruelo J, Rosario Acosta AT, Hédl R, Peet RK, Guarino R (2016) Cerrado, Caatinga, Gran Chaco and Mata Atlântica: South American flagships of biodiversity. IAVS Bulletin 2016/3, 8–23. doi:https://doi.org/10.21570/BUL-201609-1
Janssen JAM, Rodwell JS, Criado G, Gubbay S, Hynes T, Nieto A, Sanders N, Landucci F, Loidi J, Ssymank A, Thvanainen T, Valderrabano M, Acosta A, Arronsson M, Arts G, Attorre F, Bijlsma R-J, Bioret F, Bita-Nicolae C, Biurrun I, Calix M, Capelo J, Carni A, Chytry M, Dengler J, Dimopoulos P, Essl F, Gardfjell H, Gigante D, Giusso del Galdo G, Hajek M, Jansen F, Jansen J, Kapfer J, Mickolajcak A, Molina JA, Molnar Z, Paternoster D, Pierik A, Poulin B, Renaux B, Schaminée JHJ, Sumberova K, Toivonen H, Tonteri T, Tsiripidis I, Tzonev R, Valachovic M, with contributions from Aarrestad PA, Agrillo E, Alegro E, Alonso I, Argagnon O, Armiraglio S, Assini S, Aunina L, Averis ABG, Averis AM, Bagella S, Barina Z, Barron S, Bell S, Bendiksen E, Bergmeier E, Bölöni J, Brandrud TE, Brophy J, Buffa G, Campos JA, Casella L, Christodoulou CH, Corbett P, Couvreur J-M, Crowle A, Dahlgreen J, Keersmaeker DE, Delescaille L-M, Denys L, Saeger DE, Delarze R, Devany F, De Vries S, Diack I, Dimitrov M, Eide W, Espirito Santo D, Fagaras M, Fievet V, Finck P, Fitzpatrick U, Fotiadis G, Framstad E, Frankard PH, Giancola C, Gussev CH, Hall R, Hamill B, Heinze S, Hennekens S, Hobohm C, Ivanov P, Jacobson A, Janauer G, Janisová M, Jefferson RG, Jones P, Juvan N, Kacki Z, Kallimanis A, Kazoglou Y, Keith D, Keulen K, Király G, Kirby K, Koci M, Kontula T, Leibak E, Leyssen A, Lotman S, Lyngstad A, Mäemets H, Mainstone C, Mäkelä K, Marceno M, Martin JR, Matevski V, Mesterhazy A, Milanovic D, Millaku F, Miller R, Millet J, Mjelde M, Moen A, Nygaard B, Öien D-I, O’Neill F, Paal J, Packet J, Paelinck D, Panitsa M, Perrin P, Pezzi G, Provoost S, Rasomavicius V, Raths U, Rees S, Riecken U, Roosaluste E, Rove I, Rexmann J, Rodriguez JP, Rusakova V, Rusina S, Schuiling R, Sciandrello S, Sell I, Sibik J, Simkin J, Skvorc Z, Soray D, Stesevik D, Strand GH, Stupar V, Thomaes A, Trajanovska S, Van Braekel A, Van Landuyt W, Vanderkerkhove K, Vandevoorde B, Varga A, Velkovski N, Venanzoni R, Verté P, Viciani D, Vrahnakis M, Von Wachenfeldt E, Weeda E, Wibail L, Willner W, Xystrakis F (2016) Red list of European habitats. Part 2. Terrestrial and freshwater habitats. European Commission, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg
Jongepierová I, Prach K, Fajmon K, Malaníková E, Malenovský I, Spitzer L (2019) Restoration of species-rich grasslands in the White Carpathian Mts. In: Jongepierová I, Pešout P, Prach K (eds) Ecological restoration in the Czech Republic II. Praha: Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, pp 76–80
Klapp E (1954) Wiesen und Weiden. Behandlung, Verbesserung und Nutzung von Grünlandflächen. 2. Aufl. Berlin, Hamburg, 519 S
Kulshreshtha S, Undi M, Zhang J, Ghorbani M, Wittenberg K, Stewart A, Salvano E, Kebreab E, Ominski K (2015) Challenges and opportunities in estimating the value of goods and services in temperate grasslands – a case study of prairie grasslands in Manitoba, Canada, Chapter 6. In: Pilipavičius V (ed) Agroecology. InTech Open Access Publisher, Rijeka, pp 147–169. https://doi.org/10.5772/59899
Lal R (2008) Sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in global carbon pools. Energy Environ Sci 1:86–100
Laycock WA (1979) Perspectives in Grassland ecology. Springer, New York
Lepsch IF (2016) Cerrado: soils from the. In: Lal R (ed) Encyclopedia of soil science, 3rd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. https://doi.org/10.1081/E-ESS3-120053880
Mendonça RC, Felfili JM, Walter BMT, Silva Júnior MC, Rezende AV, Filgueiras TS, Nogueira PE, Fagg CW (2008) Flora vascular do Bioma Cerrado: checklist com 12,356 espécies. In: Sano SM, Almeida SP (eds) Cerrado: ecologia e flora. Embrapa Cerrados, Planaltina, pp 422–442
Milton K (2002) Loving nature: towards an ecology of emotion. Routledge, London
Mittermeier RA, Gil PR, Hoffman M, Pilgrim J, Brooks T, Mittermeier CG, Lamoreux J, da Fonseca GAB (2005) Hotspots revisited: earth’s biologically richest and most endangered terrestrial ecoregions. Conservation International
Oliveira SP, Marquis RJ (eds) (2002) The Cerrados of Brazil: ecology and natural history of a neotropical savanna. Columbia University Press, New York
Olson JS, Watts JA, Allison LJ (1983) Carbon in live vegetation of major world ecosystems. Report ORNL-5862. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee
Parsons G (2008) Aesthetics and nature. Continuum International Publishing, London
Pärtel M, Bruun HH, Sammul M (2005) Biodiversity in temperate European grasslands: origin and conservation. Grassland Sci Europe 10:1–14
Poschlod P (2015) Geschichte der Kulturlandschaft. Ulmer, Stuttgart
Rachkovskaya EI, Bragina TM (2012) Steppes of Kazakhstan: diversity and present state. Plant Veg 6:103–148
Ratter JA, Ribeiro JF, Bridgewater S (1997) The Brazilian Cerrado vegetation and threats to its biodiversity. Ann Bot 80:223–230
Reheul D, De Vliegher A, Bommelé L, Carlier L (2007) The comparison between temporary and permanent grassland. Grassland Sci Europe 12:1–13
Robinson S, Finke P, Hamann B (2000) The impacts of de-collectivation on Kazakh pastoralists: case studies from Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the People’s Republic of China. J Central Asian Stud 4(2):2–34
Ruprecht E (2012) Cessation of traditional management reduces the diversity of steppe-like grasslands in Romania through litter accumulation. Plant Veg 6:197–208
Sano EE, Rosa R, Brito JLS, Ferreira LG (2010) Land cover mapping of the tropical savanna region in Brazil. Environ Monit Assess 166:113–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-0988-4
Schimper AFW (1898) Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer Grundlage. Fisher, Jena
Smelansky IE, Tishkov AA (2012) The steppe biome in Russia: ecosystem services, conservation status, and actual challenges. Plant Veg 6:45–101
Stebler FG (1898) Die besten Streuepflanzen. Schweiz. Wiesenpflanzenwerk IV. Teil. Wyss, Bern
Thornton PK (2010) Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects. Philos Trans R Soc B 365:2853–2867
Unger-Hamilton R (1985) Microscopic striations on flint sickle-blades as an indication of plant cultivation: preliminary results. World Archaeol 17(1):121–126
Válka Alves RJ, Janišová M (2016) Survival of endemic species in megadiverse campos rupestres and on oceanic islands in Brazil. IAVS Bulletin 2016/3, 14–17. doi https://doi.org/10.21570/BUL-201609-1
von Haaren C, Saathoff W, Bodenschatz T, Lange M (2010) Der Einfluss veränderter landnutzungen auf klimawandel und biodiversität. Naturschutz und biologische vielfalt 94, Bonn-Bad Godesberg
Walter H (1990) Vegetation und Klimazonen, 6th edn. Ulmer, Stuttgart
White RP, Murray S, Rohweder M (2000) Pilot analysis of global ecosystems: Grassland ecosystems. International Food Policy Research Institute and World Resources Institute, International Food Policy Research Institute and World Resources Institute, Washington, DC
Wilson JB, Peet RK, Dengler J, Pärtel M (2012) Plant species richness: the world records. J Veg Sci 23:796–802
Zalta EN, Nodelmann U, Allen C, Anderson RL (eds) (2016) The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy: environmental aesthetics. Standford University, Stanford
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hobohm, C., Janišová, M., Vahle, HC. (2021). Development and Future of Grassland Ecosystems: Do We Need a Paradigm Shift?. In: Hobohm, C. (eds) Perspectives for Biodiversity and Ecosystems. Environmental Challenges and Solutions. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57710-0_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57710-0_14
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-57709-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-57710-0
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)