Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Potential Factors Related to Food Allergy Development

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Pediatric Food Allergy

Abstract

The prevalence of food allergy and anaphylaxis over the last decades seems to have risen rapidly in developed countries. In this review, we outline the principal theories that have been postulated to explain the rise in food allergy. We explore the role of multiple genes that have been linked to the development of food allergy; however, the recent rise of food allergy has been too rapid to be driven by genetic changes alone because prevalence changes have occurred within a generation. We summarize environmental factors that have been linked to increased risk of food allergy, including damaged skin barriers, changes in infant feeding habits, reduced microbial exposure, and reduced sun exposure. Future studies will need to consider the interaction between genes and environment when discussing the food allergy epidemic.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. National Academies of Sciences E, Medicine. In: Stallings VA, Oria MP, editors. Finding a path to safety in food allergy: assessment of the global burden, causes, prevention, management, and public policy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2016. p. 574.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Gupta R, Holdford D, Bilaver L, Dyer A, Holl JL, Meltzer D. The economic impact of childhood food allergy in the United States. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(11):1026–31. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.2376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Prescott SL, Pawankar R, Allen KJ, Campbell DC, Sinn JKH, Fiocchi A, et al. A global survey of changing patterns of food allergy burden in children. World Allergy Organ J. 2013;6(21):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1939-4551-6-21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Panel N-SE, Boyce JA, Assa’ad A, Burks AW, Jones SM, Sampson HA, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy in the United States: report of the NIAID-sponsored expert panel. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;126(6 Suppl):S1–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.10.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Gupta RS, Warren CM, Smith BM, Blumenstock JA, Jiang J, Davis MM, et al. The public health impact of parent-reported childhood food allergies in the United States. Pediatrics. 2018;142(6):e20181235. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-1235.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Osborne NJ, Koplin JJ, Martin PE, Gurrin LC, Lowe AJ, Matheson MC, et al. Prevalence of challenge-proven IgE-mediated food allergy using population-based sampling and predetermined challenge criteria in infants. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;127(3):668–76 e1-2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.01.039.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Moonesinghe H, Mackenzie H, Venter C, Kilburn S, Turner P, Weir K, et al. Prevalence of fish and shellfish allergy: A systematic review. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2016;117(3):264–72.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2016.07.015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. McWilliam V, Koplin J, Lodge C, Tang M, Dharmage S, Allen K. The prevalence of tree nut allergy: a systematic review. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2015;15(9):54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-015-0555-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Branum A, Lukacs SL. Food allergy among U.S. Children: Trends in prevalence and hospitalizations. NCHS Data Brief. 10. Hyattsville: National Center for Health Statistics; 2008. p. 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Mullins RJ, Wainstein BK, Barnes EH, Liew WK, Campbell DE. Increases in anaphylaxis fatalities in Australia from 1997 to 2013. Clin Exp Allergy. 2016;46(8):1099–110. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12748.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Peters RL, Koplin JJ, Allen KJ, Lowe AJ, Lodge CJ, Tang MLK, et al. The prevalence of food sensitization appears not to have changed between 2 Melbourne Cohorts of high-risk infants recruited 15 Years apart. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2018;6(2):440–8.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2017.11.018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Arakali SR, Green TD, Dinakar C. Prevalence of food allergies in South Asia. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2017;118(1):16–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2016.09.441.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Hu Y, Chen J, Li H. Comparison of food allergy prevalence among Chinese infants in Chongqing, 2009 versus 1999. Pediatr Int. 2010;52(5):820–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-200X.2010.03166.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Merriam-Webster. 2019. Heritability. Available from: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/heritability. Accessed 14 Jan 2019.

  15. Sicherer SH, Furlong TJ, Maes HH, Desnick RJ, Sampson HA, Gelb BD. Genetics of peanut allergy: a twin study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;106(1 Pt 1):53–6. https://doi.org/10.1067/mai.2000.108105.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Liu X, Zhang S, Tsai H-J, Hong X, Wang B, Fang Y, et al. Genetic and environmental contributions to allergen sensitization in a Chinese twin study. Clin Exp Allergy. 2009;39(7):991–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2009.03228.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Tsai H-J, Kumar R, Pongracic J, Liu X, Story R, Yu Y, et al. Familial aggregation of food allergy and sensitization to food allergens: a family-based study. Clin Exp Allergy. 2009;39(1):101–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.03111.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Suaini NHA, Wang Y, Soriano VX, Martino DJ, Allen KJ, Ellis JA, et al. Genetic determinants of paediatric food allergy: a systematic review. Allergy. 2019;74:1631. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.13767.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Brown SJ, Asai Y, Cordell HJ, Campbell LE, Zhao Y, Liao H, et al. Loss-of-function variants in the filaggrin gene are a significant risk factor for peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;127(3):661–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.01.031.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Tan HT, Ellis JA, Koplin JJ, Matheson MC, Gurrin LC, Lowe AJ, et al. Filaggrin loss-of-function mutations do not predict food allergy over and above the risk of food sensitization among infants. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;130(5):1211–3 e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2012.07.022.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Koplin JJ, Wake M, Dharmage SC, Matheson M, Tang ML, Gurrin LC, et al. Cohort profile: the HealthNuts study: population prevalence and environmental/genetic predictors of food allergy. Int J Epidemiol. 2015;44(4):1161–71. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyu261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Greenhawt M, Weiss C, Conte ML, Doucet M, Engler A, Camargo CA Jr. Racial and ethnic disparity in food allergy in the United States: a systematic review. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013;1(4):378–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2013.04.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Allen KJ, Koplin JJ. Why does Australia appear to have the highest rates of food allergy? Pediatr Clin N Am. 2015;62(6):1441–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2015.07.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Ma ZF, Majid NA, Yamaoka Y, Lee YY. Food allergy and helicobacter pylori infection: a systematic review. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:368. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.00368.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Hirsch AG, Pollak J, Glass TA, Poulsen MN, Bailey-Davis L, Mowery J, et al. Early-life antibiotic use and subsequent diagnosis of food allergy and allergic diseases. Clin Exp Allergy. 2017;47(2):236–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12807.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Tsakok T, McKeever TM, Yeo L, Flohr C. Does early life exposure to antibiotics increase the risk of eczema? A systematic review. Br J Dermatol. 2013;169(5):983–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12476.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Allen KJ, Koplin JJ. Prospects for prevention of food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2016;4(2):215–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2015.10.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Lowe AJ, Leung DYM, Tang MLK, Su JC, Allen KJ. The skin as a target for prevention of the atopic march. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2018;120(2):145–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2017.11.023.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Walker MT, Green JE, Ferrie RP, Queener AM, Kaplan MH, Cook-Mills JM. Mechanism for initiation of food allergy: dependence on skin barrier mutations and environmental allergen costimulation. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2018;141(5):1711–25. e9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2018.02.003.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Foong RX, Brough H. The role of environmental exposure to peanut in the development of clinical allergy to peanut. Clin Exp Allergy. 2017;47(10):1232–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12992.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Martin PE, Eckert JK, Koplin JJ, Lowe AJ, Gurrin LC, Dharmage SC, et al. Which infants with eczema are at risk of food allergy? Results from a population-based cohort. Clin Exp Allergy. 2015;45(1):255–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12406.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Lack G. Update on risk factors for food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129(5):1187–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2012.02.036.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Brough HA, Liu AH, Sicherer S, Makinson K, Douiri A, Brown SJ, et al. Atopic dermatitis increases the effect of exposure to peanut antigen in dust on peanut sensitization and likely peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;135(1):164–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2014.10.007.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Du Toit G, Roberts G, Sayre PH, Bahnson HT, Radulovic S, Santos AF, et al. Randomized trial of peanut consumption in infants at risk for peanut allergy. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(9):803–13. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1414850.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Natsume O, Kabashima S, Nakazato J, Yamamoto-Hanada K, Narita M, Kondo M, et al. Two-step egg introduction for prevention of egg allergy in high-risk infants with eczema (PETIT): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2017;389(10066):276–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31418-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Ierodiakonou D, Garcia-Larsen V, Logan A, Groome A, Cunha S, Chivinge J, et al. Timing of allergenic food introduction to the infant diet and risk of allergic or autoimmune disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2016;316(11):1181–92. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.12623.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Perkin MR, Logan K, Tseng A, Raji B, Ayis S, Peacock J, et al. Randomized trial of introduction of allergenic foods in breast-fed infants. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(18):1733–43. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1514210.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Du Toit G, Sampson HA, Plaut M, Burks AW, Akdis CA, Lack G. Food allergy: update on prevention and tolerance. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2018;141(1):30–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2017.11.010.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Roduit C, Frei R, Depner M, Schaub B, Loss G, Genuneit J, et al. Increased food diversity in the first year of life is inversely associated with allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;133(4):1056–64.e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2013.12.1044.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Grimshaw KE, Maskell J, Oliver EM, Morris RC, Foote KD, Mills EN, et al. Diet and food allergy development during infancy: birth cohort study findings using prospective food diary data. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;133(2):511–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2013.05.035.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Lodge CJ, Tan DJ, Lau MX, Dai X, Tham R, Lowe AJ, et al. Breastfeeding and asthma and allergies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Paediatr. 2015;104(467):38–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13132.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Muraro A, Dreborg S, Halken S, Host A, Niggemann B, Aalberse R, et al. Dietary prevention of allergic diseases in infants and small children. Part III: critical review of published peer-reviewed observational and interventional studies and final recommendations. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2004;15(4):291–307. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3038.2004.00127.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Saarinen KM, Juntunen-Backman K, Jarvenpaa AL, Kuitunen P, Lope L, Renlund M, et al. Supplementary feeding in maternity hospitals and the risk of cow’s milk allergy: a prospective study of 6209 infants. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;104(2 Pt 1):457–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Netting MJ, Campbell DE, Koplin JJ, Beck KM, McWilliam V, Dharmage SC, et al. An Australian consensus on infant feeding guidelines to prevent food allergy: outcomes from the Australian infant feeding summit. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2017;5(6):1617–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2017.03.013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Tey D, Allen KJ, Peters RL, Koplin JJ, Tang ML, Gurrin LC, et al. Population response to change in infant feeding guidelines for allergy prevention. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;133(2):476–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2013.11.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Koplin JJ, Osborne NJ, Wake M, Martin PE, Gurrin LC, Robinson MN, et al. Can early introduction of egg prevent egg allergy in infants? J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;126(4):807–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.07.028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Strachan DP. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ. 1989;299(6710):1259–60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Rook GA, Martinelli R, Brunet LR. Innate immune responses to mycobacteria and the downregulation of atopic responses. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;3(5):337–42. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.all.0000092602.76804.ad.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Mukai K, Tsai M, Starkl P, Marichal T, Galli SJ. IgE and mast cells in host defense against parasites and venoms. Semin Immunopathol. 2016;38(5):581–603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-016-0565-1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Huang YJ, Marsland BJ, Bunyavanich S, O’Mahony L, Leung DYM, Muraro A, et al. The microbiome in allergic disease: current understanding and future opportunities—2017 PRACTALL document of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology and the European academy of allergy and clinical immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017;139(4):1099–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2017.02.007.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Vuillermin PJ, Macia L, Nanan R, Tang ML, Collier F, Brix S. The maternal microbiome during pregnancy and allergic disease in the offspring. Semin Immunopathol. 2017;39(6):669–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-017-0652-y.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Zhang G-Q, Hu H-J, Liu C-Y, Zhang Q, Shakya S, Li Z-Y. Probiotics for prevention of atopy and food hypersensitivity in early childhood: a PRISMA-compliant systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Medicine. 2016;95(8):e2562. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000002562.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Cuello-Garcia C, Fiocchi A, Pawankar R, Yepes-Nunez JJ, Morgano GP, Zhang Y, et al. Prebiotics for the prevention of allergies: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Exp Allergy. 2017;47(11):1468–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.13042.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Osborne NJ, Ukoumunne OC, Wake M, Allen KJ. Prevalence of eczema and food allergy is associated with latitude in Australia. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129(3):865–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2012.01.037.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Camargo CA Jr, Clark S, Kaplan MS, Lieberman P, Wood RA. Regional differences in EpiPen prescriptions in the United States: the potential role of vitamin D. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;120(1):131–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2007.03.049.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Hoyos-Bachiloglu R, Morales PS, Cerda J, Talesnik E, González G, Camargo CA, et al. Higher latitude and lower solar radiation influence on anaphylaxis in Chilean children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2014;25(4):338–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/pai.12211.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Allen KJ, Koplin JJ, Ponsonby AL, Gurrin LC, Wake M, Vuillermin P, et al. Vitamin D insufficiency is associated with challenge-proven food allergy in infants. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;131(4):1109–16,. 16 e1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2013.01.017.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Yepes-Nunez JJ, Fiocchi A, Pawankar R, Cuello-Garcia CA, Zhang Y, Morgano GP, et al. World allergy organization-McMaster University guidelines for allergic disease prevention (GLAD-P): vitamin D. World Allergy Organ J. 2016;9:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40413-016-0108-1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Allen KJ, Panjari M, Koplin JJ, Ponsonby AL, Vuillermin P, Gurrin LC, et al. VITALITY trial: protocol for a randomised controlled trial to establish the role of postnatal vitamin D supplementation in infant immune health. BMJ Open. 2015;5(12):e009377. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009377.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Du Toit G, Katz Y, Sasieni P, Mesher D, Maleki SJ, Fisher HR, et al. Early consumption of peanuts in infancy is associated with a low prevalence of peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(5):984–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2008.08.039.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Koplin JJ, Peters RL, Ponsonby AL, Gurrin LC, Hill D, Tang ML, et al. Increased risk of peanut allergy in infants of Asian-born parents compared to those of Australian-born parents. Allergy. 2014;69(12):1639–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.12487.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Dias RP, Summerfield A, Khakoo GA. Food hypersensitivity among Caucasian and non-Caucasian children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2008;19(1):86–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3038.2007.00582.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Keet CA, Wood RA, Matsui EC. Personal and parental nativity as risk factors for food sensitization. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129(1):169–75 e1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.10.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ellis JA, Kemp AS, Ponsonby AL. Gene-environment interaction in autoimmune disease. Expert Rev Mol Med. 2014;16:e4. https://doi.org/10.1017/erm.2014.5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Powe CE, Evans MK, Wenger J, Zonderman AB, Berg AH, Nalls M, et al. Vitamin D-binding protein and vitamin D status of black Americans and white Americans. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(21):1991–2000. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1306357.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Koplin JJ, Suaini NH, Vuillermin P, Ellis JA, Panjari M, Ponsonby AL, et al. Polymorphisms affecting vitamin D-binding protein modify the relationship between serum vitamin D (25[OH]D3) and food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016;137(2):500–6.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2015.05.051.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Allen KJ, Koplin JJ. The epidemiology of IgE-mediated food allergy and anaphylaxis. Immunol Allergy Clin N Am. 2012;32(1):35–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iac.2011.11.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Lambrecht BN, Hammad H. The immunology of the allergy epidemic and the hygiene hypothesis. Nat Immunol. 2017;18(10):1076–83. https://doi.org/10.1038/ni.3829.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Tan TH, Ellis JA, Saffery R, Allen KJ. The role of genetics and environment in the rise of childhood food allergy. Clin Exp Allergy. 2012;42(1):20–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03823.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Ponsonby AL, Symeonides C, Vuillermin P, Mueller J, Sly PD, Saffery R. Epigenetic regulation of neurodevelopmental genes in response to in utero exposure to phthalate plastic chemicals: how can we delineate causal effects? Neurotoxicology. 2016;55:92–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2016.05.011.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Potaczek DP, Harb H, Michel S, Alhamwe BA, Renz H, Tost J. Epigenetics and allergy: from basic mechanisms to clinical applications. Epigenomics. 2017;9(4):539–71. https://doi.org/10.2217/epi-2016-0162.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Martino DJ, Prescott SL. Silent mysteries: epigenetic paradigms could hold the key to conquering the epidemic of allergy and immune disease. Allergy. 2010;65(1):7–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02186.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Martino D, Neeland M, Dang T, Cobb J, Ellis J, Barnett A, et al. Epigenetic dysregulation of naive CD4+ T-cell activation genes in childhood food allergy. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):3308. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05608-4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Muraro A, Halken S, Arshad SH, Beyer K, Dubois AE, Du Toit G, et al. EAACI food allergy and anaphylaxis guidelines. Primary prevention of food allergy. Allergy. 2014;69(5):590–601. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.12398.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Tham EH, Shek LPC, Bever HPV, Vichyanond P, Ebisawa M, Wong GW, et al. Early introduction of allergenic foods for the prevention of food allergy from an Asian perspective—an Asia Pacific Association of Pediatric Allergy, Respirology & Immunology (APAPARI) consensus statement. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2018;29(1):18–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/pai.12820.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. U.S. National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov. 2018. Available from: www.clinicaltrials.gov. Accessed 22 Aug 2018.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Victoria X. Soriano

  2. Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Victoria X. Soriano

  3. Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Anne-Louise Ponsonby

  4. School of Population & Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Anne-Louise Ponsonby

  5. Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Katrina J. Allen

  6. Federal Member of the Australian Parliament, Canberra, Australia

    Katrina J. Allen

Authors
  1. Victoria X. Soriano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anne-Louise Ponsonby
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Katrina J. Allen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Food Allergy and Asthma Research, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA

    Ruchi S. Gupta

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Soriano, V.X., Ponsonby, AL., Allen, K.J. (2020). Potential Factors Related to Food Allergy Development. In: Gupta, R. (eds) Pediatric Food Allergy . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33292-1_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33292-1_10

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-33291-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-33292-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation