Abstract
A doubling of the global food demand projected for the next 50 years poses a huge challenge for the sustainability of both food production and global and local environments. Today’s agricultural technologies may be increasing productivity to meet world food demand, but they may also be threatening agricultural ecosystems. For the global environment, agricultural systems provide both sources and sinks of greenhouse gases (GHGs), which include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). This paper addresses the importance of soil organic carbon (SOC) for agro-ecosystems and GHG uptake and emission in agriculture, especially SOC changes associated with soil management. Soil management strategies have great potential to contribute to carbon sequestration, since the carbon sink capacity of the world’s agricultural and degraded soil is 50–66% of the historic carbon loss of 42–72 Pg (1 Pg=1015 g), although the actual carbon storage in cultivated soil may be smaller if climate changes lead to increasing mineralization. The importance of SOC in agricultural soil is, however, not controversial, as SOC helps to sustain soil fertility and conserve soil and water quality, and organic carbon compounds play a variety of roles in the nutrient, water, and biological cycles. No-tillage practices, cover crop management, and manure application are recommended to enhance SOC storage and to contribute to sustainable food production, which also improves soil quality. SOC sequestration could be increased at the expense of increasing the amount of non-CO2 GHG emissions; however, soil testing, synchronized fertilization techniques, and optimum water control for flooding paddy fields, among other things, can reduce these emissions. Since increasing SOC may also be able to mitigate some local environmental problems, it will be necessary to have integrated soil management practices that are compatible with increasing SOM management and controlling soil residual nutrients. Cover crops would be a critical tool for sustainable soil management because they can scavenge soil residual nitrogen and their ecological functions can be utilized to establish an optimal nitrogen cycle. In addition to developing soil management strategies for sustainable agro-ecosystems, some political and social approaches will be needed, based on a common understanding that soil and agro-ecosystems are essential for a sustainable society.
References
Akala VA, Lal R (2001) Soil organic carbon pools and sequestration rates in reclaimed minesoils in Ohio. J Environ Qual 30(6):2098–2104
Arrouays D, Balesdent J, Germon JC, Jayet PA, Soussana JF, Stengel P (2002) Increasing carbon stocks in French agricultural soils? Scientific Assessment Unit for Expertise, the French Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), Paris, France. Available online at http://www.inra.fr/actualites/rapport-carbone/synthese-anglais.pdf
Barford CC, Wofsy SC, Goulden ML, Munger JW, Pyle EH, Urbanski SP, Hutyra L, Saleska SR, Fitzjarrald D, Moore K (2001) Factors controlling long- and short-term sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in a mid-latitude forest. Science 294(5547):1688–1691
Barriuso E, Laird DA, Koskinen WC, Dowdy RH (1994) Atrazine desorption from smectites. Soil Sci Soc Am J 58(6):1632–1638
Bellamy PH, Loveland PJ, Bradley RI, Lark RM, Kirk GJD (2005) Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales 1978–2003. Nature 437(7056):245–248
Bleakley BH, Tiedje JM (1982) Nitrous oxide production by organisms other than nitrifiers or denitrifiers. Appl Environ Microbiol 44(6):1342–1348
Bollag JM, Tung G (1972) Nitrous oxide release by soil fungi. Soil Biol Biochem 4:271–276
Brown LR (2004) Outgrowing the Earth. Earth Policy Institute, Washington, DC
Brown L, Scholefield D, Jewkes EC, Lockyer DR, del Prado A (2005) NGAUGE: a decision support system to optimise N fertilisation of British grassland for economic and environmental goals. Agric Ecosyst Environ 109(1–2):20–39
Buyanovsky GA, Wagner GH, Gantzer CJ (1987) Soil respiration in a winter wheat ecosystem. Soil Sci Am J 50(2):338–344
Cambardella CA, Elliott ET (1992) Particulate soil organic matter changes across a grassland cultivation sequence. Soil Sci Soc Am J 56:777–783
Ciais P, Reichstein M, Viovy N, Granier A, Ogée J, Allard V, Aubinet M, Buchmann N, Bernhofer C, Carrara A, Chevallier F, De Noblet N, Friend AD, Friedlingstein P, Grünwald T, Heinesch B, Keronen P, Knohl A, Krinner G, Loustau D, Manca G, Matteucci G, Miglietta F, Ourcival JM, Papale D, Pilegaard K, Rambal S, Seufert G, Soussana JF, Sanz MJ, Schulze ED, Vesalaand T, Valentini R (2005) Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003. Nature 437(7058):529–533
Clancy KL (1986) The role of sustainable agriculture in improving the safety and quality of the food supply. Am J Alternative Agric 1(1):11–18
Conrad R (1995) Soil microbial processes involved in production and consumption of atmospheric trace gases. Adv Microbial Ecol 14:207–250
Conrad R (1996) Soil microorganisms as controllers of atmospheric trace gases (H2, CO, CH4, OCS, N2O, and NO). Microbiol Rev 60(4):609–640
Cox MC, Betts RA, Jones CD, Spall SA, Totterdell IJ (2000) Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model. Nature 408(6809):184–187
Davidson EA (1991) Fluxes of nitrous oxide and nitric oxide from terrestrial ecosystems. In: Rogers JE, Whitman WB (eds) Microbial production and consumption of greenhouse gases: methane, nitrogen oxides, and halomethanes. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC, pp 219–235
Davidson EA, Jansens IA (2006) Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature 440(7801):165–173
Drinkwater LE, Wagoner P, Sarrantonio M (1998) Legume-based cropping systems have reduced carbon and nitrogen losses. Nature 396(6708):262–265
Duff B, Rasmussen PE, Smiley RW (1995) Wheat/fallow systems in semi-arid regions of the Pacific NW America. In: Barnett V, Payne R, Steiner R (eds) Agricultural sustainability: economic, environmental and statistical considerations. Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp 87–109
Eichner MJ (1990) Nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized soils: summary of available data. J Environ Qual 19(2):272–280
Elliott ET, Burke IC, Monz CA, Frey SD, Lyon DJ, Paustian K, Collins HP, Halvorson AD, Huggins DR, Paul EA, Turco RF, Cole CV, Hickman MV, Blevins RL, Frye WW (1994) Terrestrial carbon pools: preliminary data from the Corn Belt and Great Plains regions. In: Doran JW, Coleman DC, Bezdicek DF, Stewart BA (eds) Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment. SSSA special publication no. 35. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, pp 179–191
Ferry JG (1993) Methanogenesis: ecology, physiology, biochemistry and genetics. Chapman and Hall, New York
Finesilver T (1989) Comparison of food quality of organically versus conventionally grown plant foods. Ecological Agriculture Projects Office, McGill University, Quebec, Canada. Available online at http://eap.mcgill.ca/Publications/EAP38.htm
Flessa H, Ruser R, Schilling R, Loftfield N, Munch JC, Kaiser EA, Beese F (2002) N2O and CH4 fluxes in potato fields: automated measurement, management effects and temporal variation. Geoderma 105(3):307–325
Follett RF, Shafer SR, Jawson MD, Franzluebbers AJ (2005) Research and implementation needs to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture in the USA. Soil Till Res 83(1):159–166
Franzluebbers AJ (2002) Soil organic matter stratification ratio as an indicator of soil quality. Soil Till Res 66(2):95–106
Franzluebbers AJ (2005) Soil organic carbon sequestration and agricultural greenhouse gas emissions in the southeastern USA. Soil Till Res 83(1):120–147
Franzluebbers AJ, Arshad MA (1997) Particulate organic carbon content and potential mineralization as affected by tillage and texture. Soil Sci Soc Am J 61(5):1382–1386
Franzluebbers AJ, Stuedemann JA (2002) Particulate and non-particulate fractions of soil organic carbon under pastures in the Southern Piedmont USA. Environ Pollut 116(Suppl 1):S53–S62
Giardina CP, Ryan MG (2000) Evidence that decomposition rates of organic carbon in mineral soil do not vary with temperature. Nature 404(6780):858–861
Golchin A, Clarke P, Oades JM, Skjemstad JO (1995) The effects of cultivation on the composition of organic matter and structural stability of soils. Aust J Soil Res 33(6):975–993
Goodale CL, Davidson EA (2002) Uncertain sinks in the shrubs. Nature 418(6898):593–594
Grace P, Oades JM (1994) Long-term field trials in Australia. In: Leigh RH, Johnson AE (eds) Long-term experiments in agriculture and ecological science. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp 53–81
Gu S, Komatsuzaki M, Moriizumi S, Takahashi M, Ikeda M (2002) Cover crop species and mowing treatment affect the performance of rotary tollage (in Japanese). Jpn J Farm Work Res 37:13–23
Gu S, Komatsuzaki M, Moriizumi S, Mu Y (2004) Soil nitrogen dynamics in relation to cover cropping (in Japanese). Jpn J Farm Work Res 39(1):9–16
Hallberg GR (1987) Agricultural chemicals in ground water: extent and implications. Am J Alternative Agric 2(1):3–15
Hansen S, Mæhlum JE, Bakken LR (1993) N2O and CH4 fluxes in soil influenced by fertilization and tractor traffic. Soil Biol Biochem 25(5):621–630
Hayashi Y, Koyama O (2003) Impact on agriculture, forestry and fishery. In: Harasawa H, Nishioka H (eds) Global warming: potential impact on Japan (in Japanese). Kokon-syoin, Tokyo, Japan, pp 133–179
Hudson BD (1994) Soil organic matter and available water capacity. J Soil Water Conserv 49(2):189–194
Hungate BA, Holland EA, Jackson RB, Chapin FS, Mooney HA, Field CB (1997) The fate of carbon in grasslands under carbon dioxide enrichment. Nature 388(6642):576–579
IPCC (1996) IPCC second assessment: climate change 1995. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
IPCC (2001) Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Available online at http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm
Ismail I, Blevins RL, Frye WW (1994) Long-term no-tillage effects on soil properties and continuous corn yields. Soil Sci Soc Am J 58(1):193–198
Ito T (2002) Soil and plant nutrition science newly developed from field study: acquisition and analysis of data from a new viewpoint. 6. Influence of no-tillage on soil properties and crop growth (in Japanese). Jpn J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 73:193–201
Jackson RB, Banner JL, Jobbàgy EG, Pockman WT, Wall DH (2002) Ecosystem carbon loss with woody plant invasion of grassland. Nature 418(6898):623–626
Johnson JMF, Reicosky DC, Allmaras RR, Sauer TJ, Venterea RT, Dell CJ (2005) Greenhouse gas contributions and mitigation potential of agriculture in the central USA. Soil Till Res 83(1):73–94
Kapkiyai JJ, Karanja NK, Qureshi JN, Smithson PC, Woomer PL (1999) Soil organic matter and nutrient dynamics in a Kenyan nitisol under long-term fertilizer and organic input management. Soil Biol Biochem 31(13):1773–1782
Katoh T (2003) Carbon accumulation in soils by soil management, mainly by organic matter application: experimental results in Aichi prefecture (in Japanese). Jpn J Soil Sci Lant Nutr 73:193–201
King GM (1997) Responses of atmospheric methane consumption by soils to global climate change. Glob Change Biol 3(4):351–362
Kinney CA, Mandernack KW, Mosier A (2005) Laboratory investigations into the effects of the pesticides mancozeb, chlorothalonil, and prosulfuron on nitrous oxide and nitric oxide production in fertilized soil. Soil Biol Biochem 37(5):837–850
Knorr W, Prentice IC, House JI, Holland EA (2005) Long-term sensitivity of soil carbon turnover to warming. Nature 433(7023):298–301
Komatsuzaki M (1999) Cropping system and rotation. In: Endo O (ed) Sustainable agriculture system management (in Japanese). Nourin Toukei Kyoukai, Tokyo, Japan
Komatsuzaki M (2004) Use of cover crops in upland fields (in Japanese). Jpn J Farm Work Res 39(3):157–163
Komatsuzaki M, Mu Y (2005) Effects of tillage system and cover cropping on carbon and nitrogen dynamics. In: Proceedings and abstracts of ecological analysis and control of greenhouse gas emission from agriculture in Asia. Ibaraki, Japan, pp 62–67
Komatsuzaki M, Muranaka K (2005) Organic broccoli production utilizing summer cover crop (in Japanese). Jpn J Farm Work Res 40(1):17–26
Komatsuzaki M, Ishida M, Ozaki Y (2005) Improving soil residual nitrogen leaching using summer cover crops (in Japanese). Jpn J Farm Work Res 40(Extra issue 1):101–102
Kusaba T (2001) Development of soil diagnosis research (in Japanese). J Agric Sci 56(1):7–12
Laird DA, Barriuso E, Dowdy RH, Koskinen WC (1992) Adsorption of atrazine on smectites. Soil Sci Soc Am J 56(1):62–67
Lal R (1995) Global soil erosion by water and carbon dynamics. In: Lal R, Kimble J, Levine E, Stewart BA (eds) Soils and global change. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp 131–142
Lal R (1998) Soil erosion impact on agronomic productivity and environment quality. Crit Rev Plant Sci 17(4):319–464
Lal R (2001) World cropland soils as a source or sink for atmospheric carbon. Adv Agron 71:145–91
Lal R (2004) Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science 304(5677):1623–1627
Laughlin RJ, Stevens RJ (2002) Evidence for fungal dominance of denitrification and codenitrification in a grassland soil. Soil Sci Soc Am J 66(5):1540–1548
Lee JJ, Phillips DL, Lui R (1993) The effect of trends in tillage practices on erosion and carbon content of soils in the US corn belt. Water Air Soil Pollut 70(1–4):389–401
Lemon KM, Katz LA, Rosenberg NJ (1991) Uncertainties with respect to biogenic emissions of methane and nitrous oxide. Discussion paper ENR92-03, report for Climate Resources Program, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC
Liang BC, McConkey BG, Schoenau J, Curtin D, Campbell CA, Moulin AP, Lafond GP, Brandt SA, Wang H (2003) Effect of tillage and crop rotations on the light fraction organic carbon and carbon mineralization in chernozemic soils of Saskatchewan. Can J Soil Sci 83(1):65–72
Maeda M, Zhao B, Ozaki Y, Yoneyama T (2003) Nitrate leaching in an Andisol treated with different types of fertilizers. Environ Pollut 121(3):477–487
Magdoff F (1998) Building soils for better crops, 2nd edn. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska
Matson PA, Parton WJ, Power AG, Swift MJ (1997) Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties: human-dominated ecosystems. Science 277(5325):504–509
McCarty GW, Meisinger JJ, Jenniskens FMM (1995) Relationships between total-N, biomass-N and active-N in soil under different tillage and N fertilizer treatments. Soil Biol Biochem 27(10):1245–1250
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (2001) Annual report on food, agriculture and rural areas in Japan. Available online at http://www.maff.go.jp/hakusyo/kaigai/ehakusyo2001.pdf
Mitchell CC, Arriaga FJ, Entry JA, Novak JL, Goodman WR, Reeves DW, Rungen MW, Traxler GJ (1996) The old rotation, 1896–1996: 100 years of sustainable cropping research. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, Auburn University, Alabama, pp 1–26
Miura N, Ae N (2005) Possibility of leaching of organic nitrogen in a field under heavy application of organic matter: model experiment using soil columns. Jpn J Soil Sci Plant Nurtur 76:843–848
Mosier AR, Duxbury JM, Freney JR, Heinemeyer O, Minami K (1998) Assessing and mitigating N2O emissions from agricultural soils. Climatic Change 40(1):7–38
Nakagawa S, Tamura Y, Yamamoto H, Yoshida K, Yoshimoto T (2003) Quality comparison of carrots (Daucus carota L.) fertilized organically or chemically, with differences in growth eliminated. Jpn J Soil Sci Plant Nurtur 74:45–53
Nierenberg D, Halweil B (2005) Cultivating food security. In: Renner M, French H, Assadourian E (eds) State of the world 2005. W.W. Norton, New York, pp 62–77
Nishimura S, Sawamoto T, Akiyama H, Sudo S, Yagi K (2004) Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from a paddy field with Japanese conventional water management and fertilizer application. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 18(2):GB2017. DOI: 10.1029/2003GB002207
Nishio M (2005) Agriculture and environmental pollution (in Japanese). Nou-bunn-kyo, Tokyo, Japan
Oberthür S, Ott HE (1999) The Kyoto Protocol: international climate policy for the 21st century. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Oldeman LR (1994) The global extent of soil degradation. In: Greenland DJ, Szabolic I (eds) Soil resilience and sustainable land use. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp 99–118
Peet M (1996) Chapter 1: soil management. In: Peet M (ed) Sustainable practices for vegetable production in the south. Pullins, Newburyport, Massachusetts, pp 1–28
Quiroga A, Funaro D, Noellemeyer E, Peinemann N (2006) Barley yield response to soil organic matter and texture in the Pampas of Argentina. Soil Till Res 90:63–68
Reeves DW (1997) The role of soil organic matter in maintaining soil quality in continuous cropping systems. Soil Till Res 43(1):131–167
Reinken G (1986) Six years comparison between biodynamic and conventional growing of vegetable and apples. In: Vogtmann H, Boechncke E, Fricke I (eds) The importance of biological agriculture in a world of diminishing resources. Verlagsgrruppe, Witzenhausen, Germany, pp 164–174
Robertson GP, Paul EA, Harwood RR (2000) Greenhouse gases in intensive agriculture: contributions of individual gases to the radiative forcing of the atmosphere. Science 289(5486):1922–1925
Robinson JS, Sharpley AN (1995) Release of nitrogen and phosphorus from poultry litter. J Environ Qual 24(1):62–67
Rodrigues MA, Pereira A, Cabanas JE, Dias L, Pires J, Arrobas M (2006) Crops use-efficiency of nitrogen from manures permitted in organic farming. Eur J Agron 25(4):328–335
Ross MA, Lembi CA (1985) Applied weed science. Macmillan, New York
Sakai N (2002) The relationship between circulation of carbon and farm work: artificial production and reduction of carbon dioxide and methane (in Japanese). Jpn J Farm Work Res 37(4):251–258
Sakai N, Sunohara W, Yonekawa S, Tsunoda K (1988) Assessment of no-tillage farming IV: soil changes and root growth (in Japanese). Jpn J Farm Work Res 23(1):25–32
Sarrantonio M (1998) Building soil fertility and tilth with cover crops. In: Clark A (ed) Managing cover crops profitably, 2nd edn. Sustainable Agriculture Network, Beltsville, Maryland, pp 16–24
Schulze ED, Freibauer A (2005) Environmental science: carbon unlocked from soils. Nature 437(7056):205–206
Schuphan W (1974) Nutritional value of crops as influenced by organic and inorganic fertilizer treatments: results of 12 years’ experiments with vegetables (1960–1972). Qual Plant Pl Fds Hum Nutr 23(4):333–358
Schütz H, Seiler W, Rennenberg H (1990) Soil and land use related sources and sinks of methane (CH4) in the context of the global methane budget. In: Bouwman AF (ed) Soils and the greenhouse effect. Wiley, New York, pp 269–285
Scott MJ, Sands RD, Rosenberg NJ, Izaurralde RC (2002) Future N2O from US agriculture: projecting effects of changing land use, agricultural technology, and climate on N2O emissions. Glob Environ Change 12(2):105–115
Sehy U, Ruser R, Munch JC (2003) Nitrous oxide fluxes from maize fields: relationship to yield, site-specific fertilization, and soil conditions. Agric Ecosyst Environ 99(1–3):97–111
Sharpley AN, Smith SJ (1995) Nitrogen and phosphorus forms in soils receiving manure. Soil Sci 159(4):253–258
Shively JM, English RS, Baker SH, Cannon GC (2001) Carbon cycling: the prokaryotic contribution. Curr Opin Microbiol 4(3):301–306
Shoun H, Kim DH, Uchiyama H, Sugiyama J (1992) Denitrification by fungi. FEMS Microbiol Lett 73(3):277–281
Six J, Elliot ET, Paustian K (1999) Aggregate and soil organic matter dynamics under conventional and no-tillage systems. Soil Sci Soc Am J 63(5):1350–1358
Smith MS, Zimmerman K (1981) Nitrous oxide production by nondenitrifying soil nitrate reducers. Soil Sci Soc Am J 45:865–871
Spokas K, Wang D, Venterea R, Sadowsky M (2006) Mechanisms of N2O production following chloropicrin fumigation. Appl Soil Ecol 31(1–2):101–109
Stamatiadis S, Werner M, Buchanan M (1999) Field assessment of soil quality as affected by compost and fertilizer application in a broccoli field (San Benito County, California). Appl Soil Ecol 12(3):217–225
Stevenson FJ (1972) Organic matter reactions involving herbicides in soil. J Environ Qual 1(4):333–343
Su YZ (2007) Soil carbon and nitrogen sequestration following the conversion of cropland to alfalfa forage land in northwest China. Soil Till Res 92(1–2):181–189
Suzuki K, Komatsuzaki M (2006) Cover crop affect wind erosion (in Japanese). Jpn J Farm Work Res 41(Extra issue 1):151–152
Tiessen H, Cuevas E, Chacon P (1994) The role of soil organic matter in sustaining soil fertility. Nature 371(6500):783–785
Toyota A, Kaneko N, Ito MT (2006) Soil ecosystem engineering by the train millipede Parafontaria laminata in a Japanese larch forest. Soil Biol Biochem 38(7):1840–1850
Tsuruta S, Takaya N, Zhang L, Shoun H, Kimura K, Hamamoto M, Nakase T (1998) Denitrification by yeasts and occurrence of cytochrome P450nor in Trichosporon cutaneum. FEMS Microbiol Lett 168(1):105–110
UNCED (1992) Agenda 21: programme of action for sustainable development. The Rio declaration on environment and development, statement of principles. Final text of agreement negotiated by governments at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, UNDP, New York, pp 3–14
UNFCCC (1992) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. UNFCCC, Bonn, Germany
UNFCCC (1998) Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. UNFCCC. Available online at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf
Wadman WP, de Haan S (1997) Decomposition of organic matter from 36 soils in a long-term pot experiment. Plant Soil 189(2):289–301
Wagger MG, Mengel DB (1988) The role of nonleguminous cover crops in the efficient use of water and nitrogen. In: Hargrove WL (ed) Cropping strategies for efficient use of water and nitrogen. Special publication no. 51. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, pp 115–127
Wagger MG (1989) Time of desiccation effects on plant composition and subsequent nitrogen release from several winter annual cover crops. Agron J 81(2):236–241
Watson RT, Noble IR, Bolin B, Ravindranath NH, Verardo DJ, Dokken DJ (2000) IPCC special report on land use, land-use change and forestry. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Weil RR, Magdoff F (2004) Significance of soil organic matter to soil quality and health. In: Magdoff F, Weil RR (eds) Soil organic matter in sustainable agriculture. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp 1–44
Weyer P (2001) Nitrate in drinking water and human health. Center for Health Effects of Environmental Contamination, University of Iowa, Iowa. Available online at http://www.cheec.uiowa.edu/nitrate/health.html
Whitman WB, Coleman DC, Wiebe WJ (1998) Prokaryotes: the unseen majority. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95(12):6578–6583
Wood S, Sebastian K, Scherr SJ (2000) Pilot analysis of global ecosystems: agroecosystems. International Food Policy Research Institute and World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Available online at http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/books/page/agroeco.pdf
Yagi K (2002) Mitigation options for methane emission in rice fields. In: Lal R (ed) Encyclopedia of soil science. Dekker, New York, pp 814–818
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Komatsuzaki, M., Ohta, H. Soil management practices for sustainable agro-ecosystems. Sustain Sci 2, 103–120 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-006-0014-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-006-0014-5