Abstract
One of the longstanding questions of space science is: How does the Earth’s magnetosphere generate auroral arcs? A related question is: What form of energy is extracted from the magnetosphere to drive auroral arcs? Not knowing the answers to these questions hinders our ability to determine the impact of auroral arcs on the magnetospheric system. Magnetospheric mechanisms for driving quiescent auroral arcs are reviewed. Two types of quiescent arcs are (1) low-latitude non-Alfvénic (growth-phase) arcs magnetically connecting to the electron plasma sheet and (2) high-latitude arcs magnetically connecting near the plasma-sheet boundary layer. The reviews of the magnetospheric generator mechanisms are separated for the two types of quiescent arcs. The driving of auroral-arc currents in large-scale computer simulations is examined. Predicted observables in the magnetosphere and in the ionosphere are compiled for the various generator mechanisms.
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Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Johan De Keyser, Mike Henderson, Michael Hesse, Joseph Lemaire, Bill Lotko, Romain Maggiolo, Noora Partamies, Michael Roth, and Michelle Thomsen for helpful conversations. JEB was supported by the NASA Heliophysics LWS TRT program via grants NNX16AB75G and NNX14AN90G, by the NSF GEM Program via award AGS-1502947, by the NASA Heliophysics Guest Investigator Program via grants NNX17AB71G, by the NSF SHINE program via award AGS-1723416. JB acknowledges support by NASA grants 80NSSC18K0834 and 80NSSC18K1452 and NSF grant 1602655. MME acknowledges support from the Romanian Ministry of Research (PCCDI Grant VESS), the Romanian Space Agency (STAR project 182-OANA) and the Belgian Solar Terrestrial Center of Excellence (STCE). SF is supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP17K05671. DJK is supported by the National Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada. RLL is supported by NSF grant AGS-1558134. OM acknowledges support by SIFACIT contract 4000118383/16/I–EF with ESA and STAR EXPRESS contract 119/2017 with Romanian Space Agency. THW is supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP16H04086 and JP17H01177. The authors also wish to thank the International Space Science Institute ISSI-Bern for organization of this review and for financial support of the team meeting.
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Auroral Physics
Edited by David Knudsen, Joe Borovsky, Tomas Karlsson, Ryuho Kataoka and Noora Partmies
Appendix: Some Theories of Auroral Arc Generation that Are in Disuse
Appendix: Some Theories of Auroral Arc Generation that Are in Disuse
Some auroral-arc generator models that were reviewed previously (Borovsky 1993) are no longer actively discussed in the literature. These theories are briefly outlined below.
Arcs Generated at Reconnection \(X\)-Lines
Atkinson (1992) argued that auroral arcs magnetically connect to reconnection \(X\)-lines where they are driven by charge-separation electric fields produced by the differences in electron and ion inertia in the plasma flow through the reconnection diffusion region (i.e. collisionless Hall effects). He further argued (Atkinson et al. 1989) that multiple auroral arcs map to multiple reconnection \(X\)-lines in the magnetotail (see also Safargaleev et al. 1997).
Arcs Generated on a Resonant Absorption Layer
The idea was discussed (Hasegawa 1976; Goertz 1984) wherein kinetic Alfvén waves could be driven by mode conversion on a resonant layer in the magnetotail and that the kinetic Alfvén waves could accelerate electrons into the atmosphere to produce an auroral arc. The energy source most discussed was MHD surface waves (e.g. Kelvin-Helmholtz waves) on the magnetopause driven by the solar wind, with the evanescent surface waves mode converting on density boundaries in the plasma sheet. One drawback with this idea is that the magnetospheric surface waves are traveling antisunward and they will mode convert to produce kinetic Alfvén waves that are propagating antisunward, opposite to the Alfvén waves observed to accelerate electrons sunward (Earthward) to produce aurora. Chen and Kivelson (1991) evaluated the amplitudes of ULF MHD waves in the lobe (between the magnetopause surface wave and the plasma sheet) and found the power transport to be weak (see also the comments of Keiling (2009)). Note that ideas about mode conversion from solar-wind-driven waves to Alfvén waves that drive the aurora are active (cf. Sect. 2.1), with the solar-wind-driven waves being magnetosonic waves instead of Kelvin-Helmholtz waves.
Arcs Generated by Earthward Ion or Plasma Streams Driving Electrostatic Shocks
Ideas were presented (e.g. Kan 1975; Kan and Akasofu 1976) wherein observed Earthward streams of ions (or plasma flows) in the high-latitude portions of the plasma sheet could drive electrostatic shocks (e.g. Swift 1976) near the Earth that stopped the Earthward ion flow and accelerated electrons Earthward to produce auroral arcs. In this picture the power for the auroral arc came from the ram kinetic energy of the Earthward moving ions. The conversion of the ion flow energy into electron beam energy by an electrostatic potential structure has not recently been discussed in the literature, although the conversion of ion-beam energy into Alfvén waves via firehose-type instabilities has been discussed (cf. Sect. 2.1).
Arcs Generated by Earthward Ion Streams Driving Lower-Hybrid Waves
Lower-hybrid waves can transfer energy between ions and electrons. A model for high-latitude auroral arcs was suggested in which Earthward streams of ions in the plasma sheet boundary layer could drive a turbulence of lower-hybrid waves, which in turn stochastically accelerated electrons toward the atmosphere to produce auroral arcs (Bingham et al. 1984, 1988; Roy and Lakhina 1985; Bryant 1990; Bryant et al. 1991). Analogous to the prior model, this idea has not been discussed recently in the literature.
Plasma-Sheet Flow Turbulence Inverse Cascading to Form an Arc
For MHD turbulence restricted to two dimensions there was a plasma-physics research focus on an inverse cascade of turbulent energy to large spatial scales (Fyfe et al. 1977; Pouquet 1978). In magnetospheric physics several calculations and simulations focused on the idea of two-dimensional MHD or electrostatic \(\underline{E}\times\underline{B}\) turbulence in the plasma sheet undergoing an inverse energy cascade to form a coherent structure, mapping to an east-west-aligned auroral arc (Swift 1977, 1979, 1981; Lotko and Schultz 1988; Song and Lysak 1988).
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Borovsky, J.E., Birn, J., Echim, M.M. et al. Quiescent Discrete Auroral Arcs: A Review of Magnetospheric Generator Mechanisms. Space Sci Rev 216, 1 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-019-0619-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-019-0619-5