Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Patterns of Physical and Relational Aggression in a School-Based Sample of Boys and Girls

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The current study investigated the patterns of aggressive behavior displayed in a sample of 282 students in the 4th through 7th grades (M age = 11.28; SD = 1.82). Using cluster analyses, two distinct patterns of physical aggression emerged for both boys and girls with one aggressive cluster showing mild levels of reactive aggression and one group showing high levels of both reactive and proactive aggression. Both aggressive clusters showed problems with anger dysregulation, impulsivity, thrill and adventure seeking, positive outcome expectancies for aggression, and higher rates of bullying. However, the combined cluster was most severe on all of these variables and only the combined aggressive group differed from non-aggressive students on their level of callous-unemotional traits. Similar patterns of findings emerged for relational aggression but only for girls.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The label relational aggression is sometimes used interchangeably with the terms “social aggression” and “indirect aggression (see Card et al., 2008 for a more extended discussion of the similarities and differences in the use of these terms). We chose to use the term “relational aggression” because the conceptualization that guided this study and the measure used to assess this construct in the current study focused on behaviors related to harming others through hurting their social relationships (e.g., spreading rumors and lies about another person; excluding others from a friendship group).

  2. Given the relatively small sample size for the analyses, the results have to be interpreted with extreme caution. However, a confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the PCS in the current sample and the results were similar to past factor analyses. That is, the four factor structure showed adequate fit (e.g., CFI = .934; RMSEA = .063) and showed significantly better fit than one factor (i.e., general aggression) or two factor (i.e., relational and physical aggression factors) models using a chi-square difference test.

References

  • Archer, J. & Coyne, S. (2005). An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 212–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atkins, M., Osborne, M., Bennett, D., Hess, L., & Halperin, J. (2001). Children’s competitive peer aggression during reward and punishment. Aggressive Behavior, 27, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barker, E. D., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Vitaro, F., & Lacourse, E. (2006). Development of male proactive and reactive physical aggression during adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(8), 783–790.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biggs, B. K., Twemlow, S. W., Fonagy, P., & Dill, E. J. (2008). Teacher adherence and its relations to teacher attitudes and student outcomes in an elementary school-based violence prevention program. School Psychology Review, 37, 533–549.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K., Atkins, M., Osborne, M., & Osborne, M. (1996). A revised teacher rating scale for reactive and proactive aggression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 473.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, J. D., Loeber, R., & Lahey, B. B. (2007). Adolescent conduct disorder and interpersonal callousness as predictors of psychopathy in young adults. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 334–346.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J. & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Is it time to pull the plug on the hostile versus instrumental aggression dichotomy? Psychological Review, 108, 273–279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camodeca, M., Goossens, F. A., Terwogt, M. M., & Schuengel, C. (2002). Bullying and victimization among school-age children: Stability and links to proactive and reactive aggression. Maryland: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A. & Little, T. D. (2006). Proactive and reactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: a meta-analysis of differential relations with psychosocial adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 466–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Card, N., Stucky, B., Sawalani, G., & Little, T. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: a meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 1185–1229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1983). The cost of dichotomization. Applied Psychological Measurement, 7, 249–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E. J. & Angold, A. (2006). Developmental epidemiology. In D. Cichetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, Vol.1: Theory and method (2nd ed., pp. 41–75). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1996). The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children’s future social adjustment. Child Development, 67, 2317–2327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. & Dodge, K. (1996). Social information-processing mechanisms on reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development, 67, 993–1002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. & Grotpeter, J. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Casas, J. F., & Mosher, M. (1997). Relational and overt aggression in preschool. Developmental Psychology, 33, 579–588.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • David, C. F. & Kistner, J. A. (2000). Do positive self-perceptions have a “dark side”? Examination of the link between perceptional bias and aggression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 327–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dill, E. J., Vernberg, E. M., Fongay, P., Twemlow, S. W., & Gamm, B. K. (2008). Negative affect in victimized children: the roles of social withdrawal, peer rejection, and attitudes toward bullying. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 159–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A. & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1146–1158.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, D. K., Lowry, R., Brener, N. D., Grunbaum, J. A., & Kann, L. (2004). Passive versus active parental permission in school-based research: does the type of permission affect prevalence estimates of risk behaviors? Evaluation Review, 28, 564–577.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esbesnsen, F. A., Melde, C., Taylor, T. J., & Peterson, D. (2008). Active parental consent in school-based research: how much is enough and how do we get it? Evaluation Review, 32, 335–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J. (2006). Developmental pathways to conduct disorder. Child Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 311–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. & Dickens, C. (2006). Current perspectives on conduct disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 8, 59–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J. & Hare, R. D. (2001). Antisocial process screening device: Technical manual. New York: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J. & Morris, A. S. (2004). Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 54–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. & White, S. (2008). Research review: the importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 49, 359–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P., Cornell, A., Bodin, S., Dane, H., Barry, C., & Loney, B. (2003). Callous- unemotional traits and developmental pathways to severe conduct problems. Developmental Psychology, 39, 246–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P.J., Lilienfeld, S.O., Ellis, M., Loney, B. & Silverthorn, P. (1999). The association between anxiety and psychopathy dimensions in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 383–392.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Stickle, T. R., Dandreaux, D. M., Farrell, J. M., & Kimonis, E. R. (2005). Callous-unemotional traits in predicting the severity and stability of conduct problems and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 33, 471–487.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, J., Cillessen, A., Dodge, K., Coie, J., & Schwartz, D. (2001). The dyadic nature of social information processing in boys' reactive and proactive aggression. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 80, 268–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, J. A., Smithmyer, C. M., Ramsden, S. R., Parker, E. H., Flanagan, K. D., Dearing, K. F., et al. (2002). Observational, physiological, and self-report measures of children’s anger: relations to reactive versus proactive aggression. Child Development, 73, 1101–1118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kimonis, E., Frick, P., Skeem, J., Marsee, M., Cruise, K., Munoz, L., et al. (2008). Assessing callous–unemotional traits in adolescent offenders: validation of the inventory of callous–unemotional traits. International Journal of Law & Psychiatry, 31, 241–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruh, I. P., Frick, P. J., & Clement, C. B. (2005). Historical and personality correlates to the violence patterns of juveniles tried as adults. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 32, 69–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Bjorkqvist, K., & Peltonen, T. (1988). Is indirect aggression typical of females? Gender differences in aggressiveness in 11-to 12-year-old children. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 403–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D., Jones, S. M., Henrich, C. C., & Hawley, P. H. (2003). Disentangling the “whys” from “whats” of aggressive behavior. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 122–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lochman, J.E., Wells, K, & Lenhart L (2008). Coping power: Child group facilitator’sguide. Oxford University Press.

  • Loney, B. R., Frick, P. J., Clements, C. B., Ellis, M. L., & Kerlin, K. (2004). Callous-unemotional traits, impulsivity, and emotional processing in adolescents with antisocial behavior problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 66–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynam, D. R., Hoyle, R. H., & Newman, J. P. (2006). The perils of partialling: cautionary tales from aggression and psychopathy. Assessment, 13, 328–341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lynam, D. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, R. (2007). Longitudinal evidence that psychopathy scores in early adolescence predictyoung adult psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 155–165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, C., McKay, M., & Atkins, M. (2003). School social work: meeting the mental health needs of students through collaboration with teachers. Children & Schools, 25, 197–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsee, M.A., Barry, C.T. Frick, P.J., Kimonis, E.R., Muñoz, L.C., & Aucoin, K.J. (2006). Factor structure of the peer conflict scale in a sample of juvenile justice involved youth. Manuscript in preparation.

  • Marsee, M. & Frick, P. (2007). Exploring the cognitive and emotional correlates to proactive and reactive aggression in a sample of detained girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 969–981.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marsee, M. A., Weems, C. F., & Taylor, L. K. (2008). Exploring the association between aggression and anxiety in youth: a look at aggressive subtypes, gender, and social cognition. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 17, 154–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munoz, L. C. & Frick, P. J. (2007). The reliability, stability, and predictive utility of the self-report version of the antisocial process screening device. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 48, 299–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munoz, L. C., Frick, P. J., Kimonis, E. R., & Aucoin, K. J. (2008). Types of aggression, responsiveness to provocation and callous-unemotional traits in detained adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 15–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nansel, R. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simons-Morton, B., & Sheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among US youth: prevalence and association with psychosocial Adjustment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2094–2100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1991). Bully/victim problems among school children: basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. In D. Pepler & K. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 441–448). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (2001). Peer harassment: a critical analysis and some important issues. In J. Juvonen & S. Graham (Eds.), Peer harassment in school: the plight of the vulnerable and victimized (pp. 3–20). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrov, J. M. & Keating, C. F. (2004). Gender differences in preschool aggression during free play and structured interactions: an observational study. Social Development, 13, 256–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, N. & Lochman, J. (2003). Experimentally manipulated change in children's proactive and reactive aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 215–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pitts, T. B. (1997). Reduced heart rate levels in aggressive children. In A. Raine, P. A. Brennan, D. P. Farrington & S. A. Mednick (Eds.), Biosocial bases of violence (pp. 317–320). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poulin, F. & Boivin, M. (2000). Reactive and instrumental aggression: evidence of a two factor model. Psychological Assessment, 12, 115–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prinstein, M. J., Boergers, J., & Vernberg, E. M. (2001). Overt and relational aggression in adolescents: social-psychological adjustment of aggressors and victims. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 479–491.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Putallaz, M., Grimes, C. L., Foster, K. J., Kupersmidt, J. B., Coie, J. D., & Dearing, K. (2007). Overt and relational aggression and victimization: multiple perspectives within the school setting. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 523–547.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., et al. (2006). The reactive-proactive aggression questionnaire: differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 159–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhys, G. S. & Bear, G. G. (1997). Relational aggression and peer relations: gender and developmental issues. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43(1), 87–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russo, M. F., Garnett, S. S., Lahey, B. B., et al. (1993). A sensation seeking scale for children: further refinement and psychometric development. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 15, 69–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C. & Nieminen, E. (2002). Proactive and reactive aggression among school children: bullies, victims, and bully-victims. Aggressive Behavior, 28, 30–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solberg, M. E., Owleaus, D., & Endresen, I. M. (2007). Bullies and victims at school: are they the same pupils? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 7, 441–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sourander, A., Jensen, P., Ronning, J. A., Niemela, S., Helenius, H., Sillanmaki, L., et al. (2007). What is the early adulthood outcome of boys who bully or are bullied in childhood: the Finnish “From a Boy to a Man study”. Pediatrics, 120, 397–404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Storch, E. A., Masia-Warner, C., Crisp, H., & Stein, R. G. (2005). Peer victimization and Social anxiety in adolescence: a prospective study. Aggressive Behavior, 31, 437–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K., Galen, B. R., & Paquette, J. A. (2001). Admirations rather than hostilities: response to Archer, Bjorkqvist, and Crick et al. Social Development, 10, 275–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unever, J. D. (2005). Bullies, aggressive victims, and victims: are they distinct groups? Aggressive Behavior, 31, 153–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vernberg, E. M., Jacobs, A. K., & Hershberger, S. L. (1999). Peer victimization and attitudes about violence during early adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 386–395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walters, G. D. (2005). Proactive and reactive aggression: a lifestyle view. In J. P. Morgan (Ed.), Psychology of Aggression (pp. 29–43). Hauppauge: Nova Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeman, J., Shipman, K., & Penza-Clyve, S. (2001). Development and initial validation of the children’s sadness management scale. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 25, 187–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of New Orleans, 2001 Geology & Psychology Bldg., New Orleans, LA, 70148, USA

    Ann Marie Crapanzano & Paul J. Frick

  2. Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, USA

    Andrew M. Terranova

Authors
  1. Ann Marie Crapanzano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul J. Frick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Andrew M. Terranova
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul J. Frick.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Crapanzano, A.M., Frick, P.J. & Terranova, A.M. Patterns of Physical and Relational Aggression in a School-Based Sample of Boys and Girls. J Abnorm Child Psychol 38, 433–445 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9376-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9376-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation