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Diet, Activity Patterns, and Ranging Ecology of the Bale Monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in Odobullu Forest, Ethiopia

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Abstract

Bale monkeys (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) are little-known primates endemic to the forests of the Bale Massif and Hagere Selam regions of Ethiopia. From August 2007 to May 2008, we conducted the first ever study of the species’ behavior and ecology, focusing in particular on its diet, activity patterns, and ranging ecology in the Odobullu Forest. We studied 2 neighboring groups (group A: 55–60 members; group B: 46–50 members) and conducted behavioral scan samples on the first 2–5 individuals sighted at 15-min intervals. Feeding accounted for 65.7% of the activity budget, followed by moving (14.4%), resting (10.7%), social (7.1%), and other behaviors (2.4%). Overall diet during the study was dominated by young leaves (80.2%), though subjects also ate fruits (9.6%), flowers (3.1%), animal prey (2.3%), shoots (1.5%), stems (1.4%), mature leaves (1.1%), and roots (0.9%). Bale monkeys consumed only 11 plant species; of these, the top 5 species accounted for 94.3% of their diet. The top food item, bamboo (Arundinaria alpina), was responsible for a remarkable 76.7% of their diet, with most (95.2%) of the bamboo consumption consisting of young leaves. Mean daily path length for the study groups was 928 m and mean (100% minimum convex polygon) home range size was 15.2 ha. Though we are cautious in drawing conclusions from only 2 groups, the larger group traveled further per day and occupied a larger home range, patterns suggesting scramble competition may be occurring in Bale monkey groups at Odobullu. The dietary specialization of Bale monkeys on bamboo makes them unique among Chlorocebus spp. and suggests an intriguing ecological convergence with the golden monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis kandti) of Uganda and bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur spp.) of Madagascar. Their narrow ecological niche, limited geographic distribution, and bamboo harvesting by local people for commercial purposes place Bale monkeys at risk of extinction. To ensure the long-term survival of Bale monkeys, appropriate management action should be taken to conserve the species and the bamboo forests upon which it depends.

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Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme, Pittsburgh Zoo and PPG Aquarium, and Primate Conservation Inc. FARM-Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia provided satellite imagery. We thank the Federal Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority and Oromia Region Wildlife Department for their permission to conduct this research, and Stuart Williams for initiating the project. We also thank Colin Groves, Nga Nguyen, and 2 anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on the manuscript and for providing access to relevant literature. We thank Assefa Hailu of the National Herbarium for identification of plant specimens. We thank Addis Ababa University (Department of Biology), the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme, and Frankfurt Zoological Society for their logistical support of our study. We also thank the following field assistants, camp attendants, and villagers for their help: Mohammed Worko, Omer Hajeleye, Hassen Wole, Issa Hussen, Adem Koye, Kemal Mohammed, and Awol Hule.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

    Addisu Mekonnen & Afework Bekele

  2. Department of Anthropology, California State University Fullerton, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA

    Peter J. Fashing

  3. Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme, Robe, Ethiopia

    Graham Hemson

  4. Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biology, University of Oslo, Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway

    Anagaw Atickem

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  1. Addisu Mekonnen
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Correspondence to Addisu Mekonnen.

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Mekonnen, A., Bekele, A., Fashing, P.J. et al. Diet, Activity Patterns, and Ranging Ecology of the Bale Monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in Odobullu Forest, Ethiopia. Int J Primatol 31, 339–362 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-010-9389-3

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