Abstract
Despite the broad diversity of vaccines available for use in humans, the majority of licensed vaccines utilize serum antibody responses as the primary correlate of protection. However, the immunity afforded from such protective thresholds may vary from near absolute defense, to something as weak as a simple surrogate measure with little direct role in preventing disease. Understanding the historical context in which immune correlates have been defined can better inform future vaccines, even as vaccine development begins to explore the computational power of systems biology approaches and next generation vaccine technologies.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Amanna I, Slifka MK (2005) Public fear of vaccination: separating fact from fiction. Viral Immunol 18:307–315
Amanna IJ, Slifka MK (2009) Wanted, dead or alive: new viral vaccines. Antiviral Res 84:119–130
Amanna IJ, Carlson NE, Slifka MK (2007) Duration of humoral immunity to common viral and vaccine antigens. N Engl J Med 357:1903–1915
Averhoff F, Mahoney F, Coleman P, Schatz G, Hurwitz E, Margolis H (1998) Immunogenicity of hepatitis B Vaccines. Implications for persons at occupational risk of hepatitis B virus infection. Am J Prev Med 15:1–8
Baba K, Yabuuchi H, Okuni H, Takahashi M (1978) Studies with live varicella vaccine and inactivated skin test antigen: protective effect of the vaccine and clinical application of the skin test. Pediatrics 61:550–555
Beecher HK (1966) Ethics and clinical research. N Engl J Med 274:1354–1360
Bernstein A, Pulendran B, Rappuoli R (2011) Systems vaccinomics: the road ahead for vaccinology. OMICS 15:529–531
Bin D, Zhihui C, Qichang L, Ting W, Chengyin G, Xingzi W, Hanhau F, Yongzhong X (1991) Duration of immunity following immunization with live measles vaccine: 15 years of observation in Zhejiang Province, China. Bull World Health Organ 69:415–423
Bruton OC (1952) Agammaglobulinemia. Pediatrics 9:722–728
Buchbinder SP, Mehrotra DV, Duerr A, Fitzgerald DW, Mogg R, Li D, Gilbert PB, Lama JR, Marmor M, Del Rio C, McElrath MJ, Casimiro DR, Gottesdiener KM, Chodakewitz JA, Corey L, Robertson MN (2008) Efficacy assessment of a cell-mediated immunity HIV-1 vaccine (the Step Study): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, test-of-concept trial. Lancet 372:1881–1893
CDC (2011a) Measles. In: Atkinson W, Wolfe S, Hamborsky J (eds) Epidemiology and prevention of vaccine-preventable diseases, 12th edn. Public Health Foundation, Washington, DC
CDC (2011b) Summary of notifiable diseases: United States, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 58:1–100
CDC (2011c) Tetanus. In: Atkinson W, Wolfe S, Hamborsky J (eds) Epidemiology and prevention of vaccine-preventable diseases, 12th edn. Public Health Foundation, Washington, DC
CDC (2011d) Varicella. In: Atkinson W, Wolfe S, Hamborsky J (eds) Epidemiology and prevention of vaccine-preventable diseases, 12th edn. Public Health Foundation, Washington, DC
Chan IS, Li S, Matthews H, Chan C, Vessey R, Sadoff J, Heyse J (2002) Use of statistical models for evaluating antibody response as a correlate of protection against varicella. Stat Med 21:3411–3430
Chaves SS, Gargiullo P, Zhang JX, Civen R, Guris D, Mascola L, Seward JF (2007) Loss of vaccine-induced immunity to varicella over time. N Engl J Med 356:1121–1129
Chen RT, Markowitz LE, Albrecht P, Stewart JA, Mofenson LM, Preblud SR, Orenstein WA (1990) Measles antibody: reevaluation of protective titers. J Infect Dis 162:1036–1042
Christie AS, Gay A (2011) The Measles Initiative: moving toward measles eradication. J Infect Dis 204(Suppl 1):S14–S17
Committee on Infectious Disease (2007) Prevention of varicella: recommendations for use of varicella vaccines in children, including a recommendation for a routine 2-dose varicella immunization schedule. Pediatrics 120:221–231
Crotty S, Felgner P, Davies H, Glidewell J, Villareal L, Ahmed R (2003) Cutting edge: long-term B cell memory in humans after smallpox vaccination. J Immunol 171:4969–4973
Cutts FT (1996) The immunological basis for immunization series. Module 7: measles. WHO Global Programme for Vaccines and Immunization, Geneva
D’Argenio DA, Wilson CB (2010) A decade of vaccines: integrating immunology and vaccinology for rational vaccine design. Immunity 33:437–440
D’Souza MP, Altfeld M (2008) Measuring HIV-1-specific T cell immunity: how valid are current assays? J Infect Dis 197:337–339
Dienstag JL, Werner BG, Polk BF, Snydman DR, Craven DE, Platt R, Crumpacker CS, Ouellet-Hellstrom R, Grady GF (1984) Hepatitis B vaccine in health care personnel: safety, immunogenicity, and indicators of efficacy. Ann Intern Med 101:34–40
Douglas RG, Sadoff J, Samant V (2008) The vaccine industry. In: Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, Offit PA (eds) Vaccines, 5th edn. Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia
Fine P, Eames K, Heymann DL (2011) “Herd immunity”: a rough guide. Clin Infect Dis 52:911–916
Francis DP, Hadler SC, Thompson SE, Maynard JE, Ostrow DG, Altman N, Braff EH, O’Malley P, Hawkins D, Judson FN, Penley K, Nylund T, Christie G, Meyers F, Moore JN Jr, Gardner A, Doto IL, Miller JH, Reynolds GH, Murphy BL, Schable CA, Clark BT, Curran JW, Redeker AG (1982) The prevention of hepatitis B with vaccine. Report of the centers for disease control multi-center efficacy trial among homosexual men. Ann Intern Med 97:362–366
Galazka A (1993) The immunological basis for immunization series. Module 3: tetanus. World Health Organization, Geneva
Gill DM (1982) Bacterial toxins: a table of lethal amounts. Microbiol Rev 46:86–94
GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals (2010) Engerix-B® package insert, December edn. GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals, Research Triangle Park
Good RA, Zak SJ (1956) Disturbances in gamma globulin synthesis as experiments of nature. Pediatrics 18:109–149
Goulon M, Girard O, Grosbuis S, Desormeau JP, Capponi MF (1972) Antitetanus antibodies. Assay before anatoxinotherapy in 64 tetanus patients. Nouv Presse Med 1:3049–3050
Hambleton S, Gershon AA (2005) Preventing varicella-zoster disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 18:70–80
Hammarlund E, Lewis MW, Hansen SG, Strelow LI, Nelson JA, Sexton GJ, Hanifin JM, Slifka MK (2003) Duration of antiviral immunity after smallpox vaccination. Nat Med 9:1131–1137
Hammond O, Wang Y, Green T, Antonello J, Kuhn R, Motley C, Stump P, Rich B, Chirmule N, Marchese RD (2006) The optimization and validation of the glycoprotein ELISA assay for quantitative varicella-zoster virus (VZV) antibody detection. J Med Virol 78:1679–1687
Hansen SG, Ford JC, Lewis MS, Ventura AB, Hughes CM, Coyne-Johnson L, Whizin N, Oswald K, Shoemaker R, Swanson T, Legasse AW, Chiuchiolo MJ, Parks CL, Axthelm MK, Nelson JA, Jarvis MA, Piatak M Jr, Lifson JD, Picker LJ (2011) Profound early control of highly pathogenic SIV by an effector memory T-cell vaccine. Nature 473:523–527
Haralambieva IH, Ovsyannikova IG, O’Byrne M, Pankratz VS, Jacobson RM, Poland GA (2011) A large observational study to concurrently assess persistence of measles specific B-cell and T-cell immunity in individuals following two doses of MMR vaccine. Vaccine 29:4485–4491
Horowitz MM, Ershler WB, McKinney WP, Battiola RJ (1988) Duration of immunity after hepatitis B vaccination: efficacy of low-dose booster vaccine. Ann Intern Med 108:185–189
Ipsen J (1946) Circulating antitoxin at the onset of diphtheria in 425 patients. J Immunol 54:325–327
Jack AD, Hall AJ, Maine N, Mendy M, Whittle HC (1999) What level of hepatitis B antibody is protective? J Infect Dis 179:489–492
Janeway C (1945) Use of concentrated human serum γ-globulin in the prevention and attenuation of measles. Bull N Y Acad Med 21:202–222
Kamiya H, Ihara T, Hattori A, Iwasa T, Sakurai M, Izawa T, Yamada A, Takahashi M (1977) Diagnostic skin test reactions with varicella virus antigen and clinical application of the test. J Infect Dis 136:784–788
Kane M, Banatvala J, Da Villa G, Esteban R, Franco E, Goudeau A, Grob P, Jilg W, Rizzetto M, Van Damme P, Van Hattum J, West D, Zuckerman J (2000) Are booster immunisations needed for lifelong hepatitis B immunity? Lancet 355:561–565
Keating GM, Noble S (2003) Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine (Engerix-B): a review of its immunogenicity and protective efficacy against hepatitis B. Drugs 63:1021–1051
Keller MA, Stiehm ER (2000) Passive immunity in prevention and treatment of infectious diseases. Clin Microbiol Rev 13:602–614
Koup RA, Graham BS, Douek DC (2011) The quest for a T cell-based immune correlate of protection against HIV: a story of trials and errors. Nat Rev Immunol 11:65–70
Krugman S (1986) The Willowbrook hepatitis studies revisited: ethical aspects. Rev Infect Dis 8:157–162
Krugman S, Ward R (1958) Clinical and experimental studies of infectious hepatitis. Pediatrics 22:1016–1022
Krugman S, Giles JP, Hammond J (1971) Viral hepatitis, type B (MS-2 strain). Studies on active immunization. JAMA 217:41–45
Kuter B, Matthews H, Shinefield H, Black S, Dennehy P, Watson B, Reisinger K, Kim LL, Lupinacci L, Hartzel J, Chan I (2004) Ten year follow-up of healthy children who received one or two injections of varicella vaccine. Pediatr Infect Dis J 23:132–137
Lee MS, Nokes DJ, Hsu HM, Lu CF (2000) Protective titres of measles neutralising antibody. J Med Virol 62:511–517
Li S, Chan IS, Matthews H, Heyse JF, Chan CY, Kuter BJ, Kaplan KM, Vessey SJ, Sadoff JC (2002) Inverse relationship between six week postvaccination varicella antibody response to vaccine and likelihood of long term breakthrough infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 21:337–342
McComb JA (1964) The prophylactic dose of homologous tetanus antitoxin. N Engl J Med 270:175–178
McElrath MJ, De Rosa SC, Moodie Z, Dubey S, Kierstead L, Janes H, Defawe OD, Carter DK, Hural J, Akondy R, Buchbinder SP, Robertson MN, Mehrotra DV, Self SG, Corey L, Shiver JW, Casimiro DR (2008) HIV-1 vaccine-induced immunity in the test-of-concept Step Study: a case-cohort analysis. Lancet 372:1894–1905
McMahon BJ, Bruden DL, Petersen KM, Bulkow LR, Parkinson AJ, Nainan O, Khristova M, Zanis C, Peters H, Margolis HS (2005) Antibody levels and protection after hepatitis B vaccination: results of a 15-year follow-up. Ann Intern Med 142:333–341
Merck & Co (2010) Recombivax HB® package insert, December edn. Merck & Co., Whitehouse Station
Merck & Co (2011) Varivax® package insert, April edn. Merck & Co., Whitehouse Station
Nahmias AJ, Griffith D, Salsbury C, Yoshida K (1967) Thymic aplasia with lymphopenia, plasma cells, and normal immunoglobulins. Relation to measles virus infection. JAMA 201:729–734
Nakaya HI, Wrammert J, Lee EK, Racioppi L, Marie-Kunze S, Haining WN, Means AR, Kasturi SP, Khan N, Li GM, McCausland M, Kanchan V, Kokko KE, Li S, Elbein R, Mehta AK, Aderem A, Subbarao K, Ahmed R, Pulendran B (2011) Systems biology of vaccination for seasonal influenza in humans. Nat Immunol 12:786–795
Nguyen HQ, Jumaan AO, Seward JF (2005) Decline in mortality due to varicella after implementation of varicella vaccination in the United States. N Engl J Med 352:450–458
Oxman MN, Levin MJ, Johnson GR, Schmader KE, Straus SE, Gelb LD, Arbeit RD, Simberkoff MS, Gershon AA, Davis LE, Weinberg A, Boardman KD, Williams HM, Zhang JH, Peduzzi PN, Beisel CE, Morrison VA, Guatelli JC, Brooks PA, Kauffman CA, Pachucki CT, Neuzil KM, Betts RF, Wright PF, Griffin MR, Brunell P, Soto NE, Marques AR, Keay SK, Goodman RP, Cotton DJ, Gnann JW Jr, Loutit J, Holodniy M, Keitel WA, Crawford GE, Yeh S-S, Lobo Z, Toney JF, Greenberg RN, Keller PM, Harbecke R, Hayward AR, Irwin MR, Kyriakides TC, Chan CY, Chan ISF, Wang WWB, Annunziato PW, Silber JL (2005) A vaccine to prevent herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia in older adults. N Engl J Med 352:2271–2284
Panum PL, Petersen JJ (1940) Observations made during the epidemic of measles on the Faroe Islands in the year 1846. Delta Omega Society; distributed by the American Public Health Association, New York
Pasko MT, Beam TR Jr (1990) Persistence of anti-HBs among health care personnel immunized with hepatitis B vaccine. Am J Public Health 80:590–593
Permar SR, Klumpp SA, Mansfield KG, Kim WK, Gorgone DA, Lifton MA, Williams KC, Schmitz JE, Reimann KA, Axthelm MK, Polack FP, Griffin DE, Letvin NL (2003) Role of CD8(+) lymphocytes in control and clearance of measles virus infection of rhesus monkeys. J Virol 77:4396–4400
Permar SR, Klumpp SA, Mansfield KG, Carville AA, Gorgone DA, Lifton MA, Schmitz JE, Reimann KA, Polack FP, Griffin DE, Letvin NL (2004) Limited contribution of humoral immunity to the clearance of measles viremia in rhesus monkeys. J Infect Dis 190:998–1005
Platkov E, Shlyakhov E, Glick Y, Khalemsky S, Fischbein A (2003) Immunologic evaluation of hepatitis B vaccine application in hospital staff. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 16:249–253
Plotkin SA (2008) Vaccines: correlates of vaccine-induced immunity. Clin Infect Dis 47:401–409
Priddy FH, Brown D, Kublin J, Monahan K, Wright DP, Lalezari J, Santiago S, Marmor M, Lally M, Novak RM, Brown SJ, Kulkarni P, Dubey SA, Kierstead LS, Casimiro DR, Mogg R, Dinubile MJ, Shiver JW, Leavitt RY, Robertson MN, Mehrotra DV, Quirk E (2008) Safety and immunogenicity of a replication-incompetent adenovirus type 5 HIV-1 clade B gag/pol/nef vaccine in healthy adults. Clin Infect Dis 46:1769–1781
Qin L, Gilbert PB, Corey L, McElrath MJ, Self SG (2007) A framework for assessing immunological correlates of protection in vaccine trials. J Infect Dis 196:1304–1312
Querec TD, Akondy RS, Lee EK, Cao W, Nakaya HI, Teuwen D, Pirani A, Gernert K, Deng J, Marzolf B, Kennedy K, Wu H, Bennoune S, Oluoch H, Miller J, Vencio RZ, Mulligan M, Aderem A, Ahmed R, Pulendran B (2009) Systems biology approach predicts immunogenicity of the yellow fever vaccine in humans. Nat Immunol 10:116–125
Ratnam S, Gadag V, West R, Burris J, Oates E, Stead F, Bouilianne N (1995) Comparison of commercial enzyme immunoassay kits with plaque reduction neutralization test for detection of measles virus antibody. J Clin Microbiol 33:811–815
Rolland M, Gilbert P (2011) Evaluating immune correlates in HIV type 1 vaccine efficacy trials: what RV144 may provide. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 28:400–404
Roome AJ, Walsh SJ, Carter ML, Hadler JL (1993) Hepatitis B vaccine responsiveness in Connecticut public safety personnel. JAMA 270:2931–2934
Ross AH (1962) Modification of chicken pox in family contacts by administration of gamma globulin. N Engl J Med 267:369–376
Saberifiroozi M, Gholamzadeh S, Serati AR (2006) The long-term immunity among health care workers vaccinated against hepatitis B virus in a large referral hospital in southern Iran. Arch Iran Med 9:204–207
Sadaoka K, Okamoto S, Gomi Y, Tanimoto T, Ishikawa T, Yoshikawa T, Asano Y, Yamanishi K, Mori Y (2008) Measurement of varicella-zoster virus (VZV)-specific cell-mediated immunity: comparison between VZV skin test and interferon-gamma enzyme-linked immunospot assay. J Infect Dis 198:1327–1333
Samb B, Aaby P, Whittle HC, Seck AM, Rahman S, Bennett J, Markowitz L, Simondon F (1995) Serologic status and measles attack rates among vaccinated and unvaccinated children in rural Senegal. Pediatr Infect Dis J 14:203–209
Scheibel I (1955) The uses and results of active tetanus immunization. Bull World Health Organ 13:381–394
Siber GR (1997) Methods for estimating serological correlates of protection. Dev Biol Stand 89:283–296
Skendzel LP (1996) Rubella immunity. Defining the level of protective antibody. Am J Clin Pathol 106:170–174
Smith JG, Liu X, Kaufhold RM, Clair J, Caulfield MJ (2001) Development and validation of a gamma interferon ELISPOT assay for quantitation of cellular immune responses to varicella-zoster virus. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 8:871–879
Sneath PA, Kerslake EG, Sruby F (1937) Tetanus immunity: resistance of guinea pigs to lethal spore doses induced by active and passive immunization. Am J Hyg 25:464–476
Stevens DA, Merigan TC (1980) Zoster immune globulin prophylaxis of disseminated zoster in compromised hosts. A randomized trial. Arch Intern Med 140:52–54
Szmuness W, Stevens CE, Harley EJ, Zang EA, Oleszko WR, William DC, Sadovsky R, Morrison JM, Kellner A (1980) Hepatitis B vaccine: demonstration of efficacy in a controlled clinical trial in a high-risk population in the United States. N Engl J Med 303:833–841
Szmuness W, Stevens CE, Harley EJ, Zang EA, Alter HJ, Taylor PE, Devera A, Chen GT, Kellner A (1982) Hepatitis B vaccine in medical staff of hemodialysis units: efficacy and subtype cross-protection. N Engl J Med 307:1481–1486
Takahashi M, Otsuka T, Okuno Y, Asano Y, Yazaki T (1974) Live vaccine used to prevent the spread of varicella in children in hospital. Lancet 2:1288–1290
Takahashi M, Asano Y, Kamiya H, Baba K, Ozaki T, Otsuka T, Yamanishi K (2008) Development of varicella vaccine. J Infect Dis 197(Suppl 2):S41–S44
Thalhimer W (1936) The prophylactic and therapeutic value of convalescent serums in some of the acute infectious diseases. Ann Intern Med 10:373–378
The RTS, S Clinical Trials Partnership (2011) First results of phase 3 trial of RTS, S/AS01 malaria vaccine in African children. N Engl J Med 365:1863–1875
Trautmann L, Sekaly RP (2011) Solving vaccine mysteries: a systems biology perspective. Nat Immunol 12:729–731
Valats JC, Tuaillon E, Funakoshi N, Hoa D, Brabet MC, Bollore K, Ducos J, Vendrell JP, Blanc P (2010) Investigation of memory B cell responses to hepatitis B surface antigen in health care workers considered as non-responders to vaccination. Vaccine 28:6411–6416
Van Damme P, Van Herck K (2007) A review of the long-term protection after hepatitis A and B vaccination. Travel Med Infect Dis 5:79–84
Vryheid RE, Kane MA, Muller N, Schatz GC, Bezabeh S (2000) Infant and adolescent hepatitis B immunization up to 1999: a global overview. Vaccine 19:1026–1037
Wassilak SGF, Roper MH, Kretsinger K, Orenstein WA (2008) Tetanus toxoid. In: Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, Offit PA (eds) Vaccines, 5th edn. Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia
Watkins DI, Burton DR, Kallas EG, Moore JP, Koff WC (2008) Nonhuman primate models and the failure of the Merck HIV-1 vaccine in humans. Nat Med 14:617–621
Watson B (2008) Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in children and adults after 1 and 2 doses of varicella vaccine. J Infect Dis 197(Suppl 2):S143–S146
Weinberg A, Levin MJ (2010) VZV T cell-mediated immunity. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 342:341–357
Whittle HC, Aaby P, Samb B, Jensen H, Bennet J, Simondon F (1999) Effect of subclinical infection on maintaining immunity against measles in vaccinated children in West Africa. Lancet 353:98–102
Wiedermann G, Ambrosch F, Andre FE, D’Hondt E, Delem A, Safary A (1992) Persistence of vaccine-induced antibody to hepatitis A virus. Vaccine 10(Suppl 1):S129–S131
Wolters KL, Dehmel H (1942) Final investigations into tetanus prevention by active immunization. Zeitschrift für hygiene und infektions krankheiten medizinische, mikrobiologie und viralogie 124:326–332
Zaia JA, Levin MJ, Preblud SR, Leszczynski J, Wright GG, Ellis RJ, Curtis AC, Valerio MA, Legore J (1983) Evaluation of varicella-zoster immune globulin: protection of immunosuppressed children after household exposure to varicella. J Infect Dis 147:737–743
Zerboni L, Nader S, Aoki K, Arvin AM (1998) Analysis of the persistence of humoral and cellular immunity in children and adults immunized with varicella vaccine. J Infect Dis 177:1701–1704
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Amanna, I.J. (2012). Correlates of Vaccine-Induced Immunity: Historical Perspectives and Future Challenges. In: Baschieri, S. (eds) Innovation in Vaccinology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4543-8_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4543-8_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-4542-1
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-4543-8
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)