Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Self-medication and Illicit Drug Use in the Workplace

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Occupational Health and Wellness

Part of the book series: Handbooks in Health, Work, and Disability ((SHHDW))

Abstract

Substance use has been observed throughout history and remains an urgent public health concern in many countries. In the United States alone, the cost of alcohol and other drug use is estimated to be greater than $240 billion per year (Martin, 2001). According to Janikowski, Cardoso, and Lee (2005), substance use is defined as experimental or casual consumption in which the individual exercises little control, whereas substance abuse is the maladaptive pattern of substance use, including excessive use, compulsions to use, and continued use despite negative consequences. Excessive and prolonged use of substances may result in addiction. Substance dependence is the compulsive use of a substance accompanied by increasing amounts needed to achieve the desired effect, despite negative consequences. Substance abuse and dependence are major national health crises with wide-ranging consequences (Benshoff & Janikowski, 2000; Janikowski et al., 2005). Substance abuse and addiction dominate the individual’s life, creating problems across the spectrum of physical, psychological, and social functioning (Janikowski et al., 2005). The prevalence rates for illicit drug use, marijuana use, and nonmedical use of a psychotherapeutic drug in the United States are reported to be 8.7, 6.6, and 2.8 % respectively (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2011).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 509.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 649.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 649.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ames, G. M., & Grube, J. W. (1997). Alcohol availability and workplace drinking: Mixed method analyses. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 60, 383–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benshoff, J. J., & Janikowski, T. P. (2000). The rehabilitation model of substance abuse counseling. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birnbaum, H. G., Ben-Hamadi, R., Kelley, D., Hsieh, M., Seal, B., Kantor, E. et al. (2010). Assessing the relationship between compliance with antidepressant therapy and employer costs among employees in the United States. Journal of Occupation and Environmental Medicine, 52, 115–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boden, J. M., & Fergusson, D. M. (2011). Alcohol and depression. Addiction, 106, 906–914.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, J., Cox, B., Clara, I., & Sareen, J. (2006). Use of alcohol and drugs to self-medicate anxiety disorders in a nationally representative sample. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 194(11), 818–826.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bombardier, C. (2000). Addressing the needs of clients with traumatic injury and alcoholism. In A. Cohen (Ed.), Directions in substance abuse counseling. New York, NY: Hatherleigh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bratter, B. I., Bratter, T. E., Radda, H. T., & Steiner, K. M. (1993). The residential therapeutic caring community. Special issue: Psychotherapy for the addictions. Psychotherapy, 30(2), 299–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budziack, T. J. (1993). Evaluating treatment services. In A. W. Heinemann (Ed.), Substance abuse and physical disability (pp. 239–255). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety. (2008). Substance abuse in the workplace. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cardoso, E., Wolf, A. W., & West, S. L. (2009). Substance abuse: Models, assessment, and interventions. In F. Chan, E. Cardoso, & J. Chronister (Eds.), Psychosocial interventions for people with chronic illness and disability. A handbook for evidenced based rehabilitation health professionals (pp. 399–434) New York: Springer Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colder, C. R. (2001). Life stress, physiological and subjective indexes of negative emotionality, and coping reasons for drinking: Is there evidence for a self-medication model of alcohol use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 15(3), 237–245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, C. L. (1983). Identifying stressors at work: Recent research developments. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 27, 369–376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, M. L., Russell, M., & Frone, M. R. (1990). Work stress and alcohol effects: A test of stress-induced drinking. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 31, 260–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, D. F. (1974). Reinforcement of drug abuse: Implications for prevention. Clinical Toxicology Bulletin, 4, 69–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, D. F. (1975). The acquisition, maintenance and treatment of polydrug dependence: A public health model. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 7, 209–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egelko, S., & Galanter, M. (1993). Introducing cognitive-behavioral training into a self-help drug treatment program. Special issue. Psychotherapy, 30(2), 214–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1990). Multidimensional assessment of coping: A critical evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 844–854.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, J. J. (2009). Tests of causal links between alcohol abuse or dependence and major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 260–266.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Manual for the ways of coping questionnaire. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franks, H. M., & Roesch, S. C. (2006). Appraisals and coping in people living with cancer: A meta-analysis. Psycho-Oncology, 15, 1027–1037.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frone, M. R. (1999). Work stress and alcohol use. Alcohol Research & Health, 23, 284–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frone, M. R., Russell, M. R., & Cooer, M. L. (1997). Job stressors, job involvement, and employee health: A test of identity theory. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 68, 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, E. S., & Grunberg, L. (1995). Work alienation and problem alcohol behavior. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 36, 83–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grunberg, L., Moore, S., Anderson-Connolly, R., & Greenberg, E. (1999). Work stress and self-reported alcohol use: The moderation role of escapist reasons for drinking. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4(1), 29–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grunberg, L., Moore, S., & Greenberg, E. S. (1998). Work stress and problem alcohol behavior: A test of the spillover model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19(5), 487–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, D., & Queener, J. E. (2007). Self-medication hypothesis of substance use: Testing Khantzian’s Updated Theory. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 39(2), 151–158.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. M., & Edlund, M. J. (2005). Self-medication of mental health problems: New evidence from a national survey. Health Services Research, 40, 117–134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hettema, J., Steele, J., & Miller, W. R. (2005). Motivational interviewing. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 91–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, S. T., Budney, A. J., Bickel, W. K., Foerg, F. E., Donham, R., & Badger, G. J. (1994). Incentives improve outcome in outpatient behavioral treatment of cocaine dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 568–576.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janikowski, T. P., Cardoso, E., & Lee, G. K. (2005). Substance abuse, disability, and case management. In F. Chan, M. J. Leahy, & J. L. Saunders (Eds.), Case management for rehabilitation health professionals (Vol. 2, pp. 247–274). Osage Beach, MO: Aspen Professional Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Nelson, C. B., McGonagle, K. A., Edlund, M. J., Frank, R. G., & Leaf, P. J. (1996). The epidemiology of co-occurring addictive and mental disorders: Implications for prevention and service utilization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 17–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khantzian, E. J. (1985). The self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: Focus on heroin and cocaine dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142(11), 1259–1264.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khantzian, E. J. (1997). The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4(5), 231–244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khantzian, E. J. (1999). Self-regulation and self-medication factors in alcoholism and the addictions: Similarities and differences. In J. Lilienfeld & J. Oxford (Eds.), The languages of addiction (pp. 43–68). New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khantzian, E. J., & Albanese, M. J. (2008). Understanding addiction as self-medication: Finding hope behind the pain. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khantzian, E. J., Mack, J. F., & Schatzberg, A. F. (1974). Heroin use as an attempt to cope: Clinical observations. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 160–164.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemaire, G., Mallik, K., & Rever, K. (2004). Factors influencing community-based rehabilitation for persons with co-occurring psychiatric and substance abuse disorders. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 15, 15–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, D., Adler, D., Hermann, R. C., Chang, H., Ludman, E., et al. (2012). Impact of a work-focused intervention on the productivity and symptoms of employees with depression. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 54, 128–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longabaugh, R., Donovan, D. M., Karno, M. P., McCrady, B. S., Morgenstern, J. S., & Tonigan, J. (2005). Active ingredients: How and why evidence-based alcohol behavioral treatment interventions work. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(2), 235–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J. K. (1990). Jobs, occupations, and patterns of alcohol consumption: A review of the literature. In P. Roman (Ed.), Alcohol problem intervention in the workplace (pp. 45–65). Westport, CT: Quorum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, S. (2001). Monitor on psychology: Special issue on substance abuse. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J. K., Blum, T. C., & Roman, P. M. (1992). Drinking to cope and self-medication: Characteristics of jobs in relations to workers’ drinking behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 55–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J. K., Roman, P. M., & Blum, T. C. (1996). Job stress, drinking networks, and social support and work: A comprehensive model of employees’ problem drinking. Sociological Quarterly, 37, 579–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendel, E., & Hipkins, J. (2002). Motivating learning disabled offenders with alcohol-related problems: A pilot study. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 153–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety. (1999). Stress at work. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 99-101. Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noblet, A. (2003). Building health promoting work settings: Identifying the relationship between work characteristics and occupational stress in Australia. Health Promotion International, 18, 351–359.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noonan, J., & Wagner, S. L. (2010). Workplace stress management: Theory and recommendations. Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin, 31(1), 3–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, D. A., & Harford, T. C. (1992). Gender-role attitudes, job competition, and alcohol consumption among women and men. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 16, 159–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Potvin, S., Sepehry, A. A., & Stip, E. (2006). A meta-analysis of negative symptoms in dual diagnosis schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 36, 431–440.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prendergast, M., Podus, D., Finney, J., Greenwell, L., & Roll, J. (2006). Contingency management for treatment of substance use disorders: A meta-analysis. Addiction, 101, 1546–1560.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prochaska, J., & DiClementi, C. (1986). Toward a comprehensive model of change. In W. Miller & N. Heather (Eds.), Treating addictive behaviors: Process of change. New York, NY: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Santa Ana, E. J., Wulfert, E., & Nietert, P. (2007). Efficacy of group motivational interviewing (GMI) for psychiatric in patients with chemical dependency. Consulting Clinical Psychiatry, 75(5), 816–822.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. (2001). Cognitive therapy for depression. British Medical Bulletin, 57, 101–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, & Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2011, May 26). The TEDS report: Substance abuse treatment admissions that were labor force dropouts. Rockville, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suh, J. J., Ruffins, S., Robins, C. E., Albanese, M. J., & Khantzian, E. J. (2008). Self-medication hypothesis: Connecting affective experience and drug of choice. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 25(3), 518–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The Treatment for Adolescents with Depression Study Team. (2004). Fluoxetine, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and their combination for adolescents with depression. Journal of American Medical Association, 292, 807–820.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trice, H. M., & Sonnenstuhl, W. J. (1990). On the construction of drinking norms in work organizations. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 51, 201–220.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasse, R. M., Nijhuis, F. J. N., & Kok, G. (1998). Associations between work stress, alcohol consumption, and sickness absence. Addiction, 93, 231–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veenstra, M. Y., Lemmens, P. H. H. M., Friesema, I. H. M., Tan, F. E. S., Garretsen, H. F. L., Knottnerus, J. A., et al. (2007). Coping style mediates impact of stress on alcohol use: A prospective population-based study. Addiction, 102, 1890–1898.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wexler, H. K., Magura, S., Beardsley, M. M., & Josepher, H. (1994). An AIDS education and relapse prevention model for high-risk parolees. Journal of the Addictions, 29(3), 361–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiesner, M., Windle, M., & Freeman, A. (2005). Work stress, substance use, and depression among young adult workers: An examination of main and moderator effect models. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(2), 83–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zobel, I., Kech, S., van Calker, D., Dykierek, P., Berger, M., Schneibel, R., et al. (2011). Long-term effect of combined interpersonal psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy in a randomized trial of depressed patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 123, 276–282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The contents of this chapter were developed with support through the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Effective Vocational Rehabilitation Service Delivery Practices established at both the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the University of Wisconsin-Stout under a grant from the Department of Education, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) grant number PR# H133B100034. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the US Department of Education, and endorsement by the Federal Government should not be assumed.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1000 Bascom Mall, Room 403, Madison, WI, 53706-1326, USA

    Fong Chan Ph.D.

  2. Department of Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1000 Bascom Mall, Madison, WI, 53706-1326, USA

    Ebonee Johnson M.S. & Emma K. Hiatt M.A.

  3. Department of Disability and Psychoeducational Studies, University of Arizon, 1430 E. Second Street, 210069, Tuscon, AZ, 85721, USA

    Chih Chin Chou Ph.D.

  4. Department of Educational Foundations and Counseling Programs, Hunter College, City University of New York, 695 Park Ave, New York, NY, 10065, USA

    Elizabeth da Silva Cardoso Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Fong Chan Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ebonee Johnson M.S.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Emma K. Hiatt M.A.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Chih Chin Chou Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Elizabeth da Silva Cardoso Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fong Chan Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Arlington, S. Nedderman Drive 501, Arlington, 76019-0528, Texas, USA

    Robert J. Gatchel

  2. , Dept of Educational and Counseling Psych, University of British Columbia, Main Hall 2125, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, British Columbia, Canada

    Izabela Z. Schultz

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Chan, F., Johnson, E., Hiatt, E.K., Chou, C.C., da Silva Cardoso, E. (2012). Self-medication and Illicit Drug Use in the Workplace. In: Gatchel, R., Schultz, I. (eds) Handbook of Occupational Health and Wellness. Handbooks in Health, Work, and Disability. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4839-6_10

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation