Abstract
This chapter offers an investigation of the problem of female entrepreneurship in Russia in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. This topic has not yet become a focus of attention for research in relation to the Russian Empire, although it has attracted increasing interest during the past decade.1 Commercial activity by women was provided for in the legislation of the Russian Empire: according to the laws concerning persons of the merchant estate, on the death of an owner the management of his business was to pass to his widow. Very often, even when the son or sons were commercially very experienced and active, family businesses were formally and in actual fact headed by the widow. Another, slightly less frequent, variant was to bequeath the management of the firm to the daughters if there were no male heirs. According to Russian law, women enjoyed the same property rights as men. The principle of separate property in marriage made it possible for a woman to be independent in property matters.2 Thus the Vedomost’ o manufakturakh v Rossii za 1813 i 1814 gody (Register of Factories in Russia for the Years 1813 and 1814) contains information on eleven Moscow factories, including seven textile factories, belonging to nine women. Among the nine owners of those enterprises, seven women had continued their husbands’ business, one was a daughter inheriting her enterprise from her merchant father, and one was a townswoman (meshchanka). This study examines the statistics on female merchants, their family and marital status, and the effectiveness of their management. It also addresses questions of property. The latter aspect will be studied using a particular source: petitions to the Moscow Governor-General written by female owners such as merchant widows, daughters, and daughters-in-law.
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Notes
Patricia Cleary, ‘“She Will Be In The Shop”: Women’s Sphere of Trade in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia and New York’, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 119 (1995), pp. 181–202;
Elaine Forman Crane, Ebb Tide in New England: Women, Seaports, and Social Change, 1630–1800 (Boston: Northeastern U P, 1998)
Zorina B. Khan, ‘Married Women’s Property Laws and Female Commercial Activity: Evidence from United States Patent Records, 1790–1895’, Journal of Economic History, 56 (1996), 356–88
Jeannette M. Oppedisano, Historical Encyclopedia of American Women Entrepreneurs: 1776 to the Present (Westport, CN: Greenwood P, 2000)
Jeannette M. Oppedisano, ‘Special Section: Gender and Business History’, Business History Review, 72 (1998), 185–249
Alastair Owens, ‘Property, Gender and the Life Course: Inheritance and Family Welfare Provision in Early Nineteenth-Century England’, Social History, 26 (2001), 297–315
Alastair Owens, ‘Inheritance and the Life-cycle of Firms in the Early Industrial Revolution’, Business History, 44 (2002), 21–46
David R. Green and Alastair Owens, ‘Gentlewomanly Capitalism? Spinsters, Widows and Wealth Holding in England and Wales, c. 1800–1860’, Economic History Review, 56 (2003), 510–36
especially: Women, Business, and Finance in Nineteenth-century Europe. Rethinking Separate Spheres, ed. by Robert Beachy, Béatrice Craig, and Alastair Owens ( Oxford and New York: Berg, 2005 ).
On women’s control of property, see Michelle Lamarche Marrese, A Woman’s Kingdom: Noblewomen and the Control of Property in Russia, 1700–1861 (Ithaca and London: Cornell U P, 2002)
Russian Women, 1698–1917: Experience and Expression, An Anthology of Sources, compiled by William G. Wagner and others (Bloomington: Indiana U P, 2002).
PSZI, XXII, no. 16188; ‘Charter on the Rights and Benefits for the Towns of the Russian Empire’, bi-lingual text in Catherine II’s Charters of 1785 to the Nobility and the Towns, ed. by D. Griffiths and G. E. Munro, The Laws of Russia Series II: vol. 289 (Bakersfield, CA: Schlacks Publishers, 1991), pp. 22–60.
PSZI, XXII, no. 16188, arts 104, 110, 116. The criteria and capital levels governing division between guilds could vary. Thus in 1794, because of inflation, the government raised the financial threshold for the merchant guilds: required capital now became 16,000–50,000 roubles for the first guild, 8,000–16,000 for the second, 2,000–8,000 for the third. See A. V. Koval’chuk, Manufakturnaia promyshlennost’ Moskvy vo vtoroi polovine XVIII veka (Moscow: Editorial URSS, 1999), p. 33.
In the eighteenth century the term meshchane in Russia was used in two senses: either it meant the entire commercial-artisan class in the towns and cities [….]; or, in a limited sense, it designated only the lower groups of the city population, the petty tradesmen, craftsmen and the like. In the nineteenth century it had only the latter meaning.’ Dictionary of Russian Historical Terms from the Eleventh Century to 1917, comp. Sergei Pushkarev, ed. George Vernadsky and Ralph T. Fisher Jr. (New Haven-London: Yale University Press, 1970), p. 60.
The wives of army conscripts (commonly called soldatki) were usually left behind when their husbands were taken into military service, which lasted many years. Their social position thereafter was often precarious, and they might have to find means of livelihood outside of ordinary peasant roles. See P. P. Shcherbinin, Voennyi faktor v povsednevnoi zhizni russkoi zhenshchiny v XVIII-nachale XIX vv. (Tambov: Iulis, 2004), p. 26.
See V. I. Semevskii, Krest’iane v tsarstvovanie Imperatritsy Ekateriny II, 2 vols (St Petersburg: Tipografiia M. M. Stasiulevicha, 1901–1903), I, pp. 540–47.
R. G. Eimontova, ‘Dvenadtsatyi god. Nashestvie’ in Istoriia Moskvy s drevneishikh vremen do nashikh dnei, 3 vols (Moscow: Mosgorarkhiv, 1997–2000), II, p. 34.
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© 2007 Galina Ul’ianova
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Ul’ianova, G. (2007). Merchant Women in Business in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries. In: Rosslyn, W., Tosi, A. (eds) Women in Russian Culture and Society, 1700–1825. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230589902_9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230589902_9
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