Abstract
This chapter outlines the historical and current states of migration in the Malay(si)an context from the early twentieth century to the present. It argues for the normalcy of migration in Malaysia. This chapter first provides an overview of Malaysia’s internal migration and emigration (especially education-migration and post-study settlement in destination countries). It then analyses Malaysian migration to Singapore and the UK in relation to migration and citizenship policy changes in these destination countries. Next, it details two migration pathways that are popular amongst mobile Malaysians: education-migration, and education followed by work and settlement. This chapter concludes with a descriptive overview of mobile Malaysians’ culture of migration. Two themes are highlighted: migration is normal, and the presence of a kind of migration mentality.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Achato, L., Eaton, M., & Jones, C. (2010). The migrant journey (UK Home Office Research Report No. 43). Retrieved February 3, 2013, from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110218135832/http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs10/horr43c.pdf
Ahmad, Y. (2002, June 16). Sleepless in Singapore. Malaysian Business. Retrieved June 23, 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn6207/is_20020616/ai_n24905252/
Appudurai, J., & Lian, K. F. (2015). Social change in an urban neighbourhood in Klang: A case study. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre.
Bedi, R. S., & Azizan, H. (2010, April 25). Drawing the experts home. The Star. Retrieved June 27, 2011, from http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2010/4/25/nation/5848533&sec=nation
Beine, M., Docquier, F., & Rapoport, H. (2006). Measuring international skilled migration: New estimates controlling for age of entry. (World Bank Research Report). Washington DC: The World Bank. Retrieved April 12, 2012, from http://go.worldbank.org/T9ZN8YS1V0
Bell, M., & Muhidin, S. (2009). Cross-national comparisons of internal migration. New York: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Retrieved August 2, 2012, from http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_30.pdf
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice (R. Nice, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1990). The logic of practice (R. Nice, Trans.). Cambridge: Polity.
Cartier, C. L. (2003). Diaspora and social restructuring in postcolonial Malaysia. In L. J. C. Ma & C. L. Cartier (Eds.), The Chinese diaspora: Space, place, mobility, and identity (pp. 69–96). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Chattopadhyay, A. (1997). Family migration and the economic status of women in Malaysia. International Migration Review, 31(2), 338–352.
Chattopadhyay, A. (2000). Gender differences in socioeconomic returns to family migration in Malaysia: The role of family decision making versus labor market stratification. Gender Issues, 18(2), 29–48.
Chee, R. (2008). “Migrants” not “locals”?: An examination of the lived experiences of Malaysian Chinese in Singapore and the functional importance of their diasporic spaces. Unpublished Master of Social Sciences thesis, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
Chitose, Y. (2001). The effects of ethnic concentration on internal migration in Peninsular Malaysia. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 10(2), 241–272.
Chitose, Y. (2003). Effects of government policy on internal migration in Peninsular Malaysia: A comparison between Malays and Non-Malays. The International Migration Review, 37(4), 1191–1219.
Commonwealth Consultative Committee on South and South-East Asia, & Colombo Plan Bureau. (1972). The Colombo Plan for Co-operative Economic Development in South & South-East Asia: The special topic: Brain Drain; country papers, The working paper and the report of the Special Topic Committee, prepared for the meeting of the 22nd Consultative Committee, 1972. New Delhi: Commonwealth Consultative Committee on South and South-East Asia.
Conway, D. (2007). Caribbean transnational migration behaviour: Reconceptualising its ‘strategic flexibility’. Population, Space and Place, 13(6), 415–431.
Denny, J. T. (1999). A study of Chinese-Malaysian students’ choices to attend a private college, American university transfer program. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Southern California, United States.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (1983). Laporan am banci penduduk = General report of the population census (Vol. 1). Kuala Lumpur: Department of Statistics Malaysia.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (1995). Laporan am banci penduduk = General report of the population census (Vol. 1). Kuala Lumpur: Department of Statistics Malaysia.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (1996). Migrasi dalaman di Malaysia = Internal migration in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Department of Statistics Malaysia.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (2001). Social statistics bulletin, Malaysia = Buletin perangkaan sosial Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Department of statistics Malaysia.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (2005). Laporan am banci penduduk dan perumahan = General report of the population and housing census. Kuala Lumpur: Department of Statistics Malaysia.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (2006). Buletin perangkaan sosial Malaysia = Social statistics bulletin, Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Department of statistics Malaysia.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (2011a). Buletin perangkaan sosial Malaysia = Social statistics bulletin, Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Department of statistics Malaysia.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (2012a). Buletin perangkaan sosial Malaysia = Social statistics bulletin, Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Department of statistics Malaysia.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (2012b). Number of internal migrants by state of origin and destination, Malaysia, 1999–2003, 2006–2010. (Unpublished data obtained August 6, 2012).
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (2013). Buletin perangkaan sosial Malaysia = Social statistics bulletin, Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Department of statistics Malaysia.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). (2014). Buletin perangkaan sosial Malaysia = Social statistics bulletin, Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Department of statistics Malaysia.
Docquier, F., & Marfouk, A. (2004). Brain drain database. Retrieved July 24, 2010, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRES/Resources/Dataset_BD_DocquierMarfouk.xls
Fernandez, D. Z., Hawley, A. H., & Predaza, S. (1974). The population of Malaysia. Paris: Committee for International Cooperation in National Research in Demography (CICRED).
Furnivall, J. S. (1948). Colonial policy and practice: A comparative study of Burma and Netherlands India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ghani, Z. (1990). Student mobility through linked programmes: A Malaysian case-study. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.
Ghosh, S., & Wang, L. (2003). Transnationalism and identity: A tale of two faces and multiple lives. Canadian Geographer/Le Géographe canadien, 47(3), 269–282.
Greater London Authority (GLA). (2013). Population by country of birth, London. Retrieved October 1, 2013, from http://data.london.gov.uk/datafiles/demographics/country-of-birth-london.xls
Greater London Authority (GLA). (2015a). 2011 census migration population: Passports held QS212EW. Retrieved December 16, 2015, from http://data.london.gov.uk/dataset/2011-census-migrant-population/resource/2566e635-02c9-47c8-b377-05d72ee5f0d2
Greater London Authority (GLA). (2015b). Population by country of birth. Retrieved December 16, 2015, from Greater London Authority (GLA). Retrieved from http://data.london.gov.uk/dataset/population-country-birth
Greater London Authority (GLA). (2015c). Population by nationality. Retrieved December 16, 2015, from http://data.london.gov.uk/dataset/population-nationality
Harper, T. N. (2001). The end of empire and the making of Malaya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hirschman, C. (1975). Net external migration from Peninsular Malaysia, 1957–1970. The Malayan Economic Review, 20(2), 38–54.
Hirschman, C. (1976). Recent urbanization trends in Peninsular Malaysia. Demography, 13(4), 445–461.
Ho, Y.-J., & Tyson, A. D. (2011). Malaysian migration to Singapore: Pathways, mechanisms and status. Malaysian Journal of Economic Studies, 48(2), 131–145.
Hugo, G. (2011). Migration and development in Malaysia: An emigration perspective. Asian Population Studies, 7(3), 219–241.
Jones, G. W., & Sidhu, M. S. (1979). Population mobility in Peninsular Malaysia. Development Forum, 9(2), 1–21.
Joseph, C. (2013). (Re)negotiating cultural and work identities pre and post-migration: Malaysian migrant women in Australia. Women’s Studies International Forum, 6(January–February), 27–36.
Kaur, A. (2006). International migration in Malaysia and Singapore since the 1880s: State policies, migration trends and governance of migration: The fourteenth James C. Jackson memorial lecture 2006. Armidale, NSW: University of New England Asia Centre (UNEAC) (for the Malaysia and Singapore Society of Australia).
Koh, A. (2003). Global flows of foreign talent: Identity anxieties in Singapore’s ethnoscape. SOJOURN: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 18(2), 230–256.
Koh, S. Y. (2015c). State-led talent return migration programme and the doubly neglected ‘Malaysian diaspora’: Whose diaspora, what citizenship, whose development? Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 36(2), 183–200.
Koh, S. Y. (forthcoming, 2017). Geographies of education-induced skilled migration: The Malaysian case. In T. Abebe & J. Waters (Eds.), Labouring and learning (Vol. 10 of the series Geographies of children and young people). Singapore: Springer.
Lam, T., & Yeoh, B. S. A. (2004). Negotiating ‘home’ and ‘national identity’: Chinese-Malaysian transmigrants in Singapore. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 45(2), 141–164.
Lam, T., Yeoh, B. S. A., & Law, L. (2002). Sustaining families transnationally: Chinese-Malaysians in Singapore. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 11(1), 117–144.
Lian, K. F. (1995). Migration and the formation of Malaysia and Singapore. In R. Cohen (Ed.), The Cambridge survey of world migration (pp. 392–396). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
MacAndrews, C., & Yamamoto, K. (1975). Induced and voluntary migration in Malaysia: The Federal Land Development Authority role in migration since 1957. Asian Journal of Social Science, 3(1), 73–90.
Malaya. (1949). Annual report of the Federation of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur: The Government Press.
Malaysia. (1984). Mid-term review of the Fourth Malaysia Plan, 1981–1985. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara.
Malaysia. (1986). Fifth Malaysia Plan, 1986–1990. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara.
Menon, R. (1987). Job transfers: A neglected aspect of migration in Malaysia. International Migration Review, 21(1), 86–95.
Ministry of Education Singapore (MOE). (2009). Tuition grant scheme. Retrieved August 10, 2012, from https://tgonline.moe.gov.sg/tgis/normal/index.action
Ministry of Education Taiwan. (2011). Number of foreign students by country of origin and academic years. Retrieved March 18, 2012, from http://www.edu.tw/files/site_content/b0013/foreign.xls
Ministry of Education Taiwan. (2015, September 12). International students in tertiary—By nationality, field & gender. Ministry of Education, Republic of China (Taiwan). Retrieved December 10, 2015, from http://stats.moe.gov.tw/files/gender_e/e111-1.xls
Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE). (2010). Twinning degree programmes. Retrieved August 6, 2012, from http://jpt.mohe.gov.my/PEMASARAN/booklet%20Education%20Malaysia/MOHE%20booklet%20-%20Twinning%20Programme%20Edition%201_2010.pdf
Nagata, J. A. (1974). Urban interlude: Some aspects of internal Malay migration in West Malaysia. International Migration Review, 8(2), 301–324.
National Population and Talent Division (NPTD). (2012). Our population, our future. Retrieved July 28, 2012, from https://www.nptd.gov.sg/content/NPTD/home/_jcr_content/par_content/download_0/file.res/Issues%20Paper%20-%20Our%20Population%20Our%20Future.pdf
National Population and Talent Division (NPTD). (2013). A sustainable population for a dynamic Singapore: Population white paper. Retrieved from http://202.157.171.46/whitepaper/downloads/population-white-paper.pdf
National Population and Talent Division (NPTD), Singapore Department of Statistics (DOS), Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), & Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA). (2011). Population in brief 2011. Retrieved November 1, 2011, from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/stats/themes/people/popinbrief2011.pdf
National Population and Talent Division (NPTD), Singapore Department of Statistics (DOS), Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), & Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA). (2015). Population in brief 2015. Retrived 24 Jan, 2013, from http://www.nptd.gov.sg/Portals/0/Homepage/Highlights/population-in-brief-2015.pdf
Nonini, D. M. (1997). Shifting identities, positioned imagineries: Transnational traversals and reversals by Malaysian Chinese. In A. Ong & D. M. Nonini (Eds.), Ungrounded empires: The cultural politics of modern Chinese transnationalism (pp. 203–227). New York and London: Routledge.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2012a). Dataset: Database on immigrants in OECD countries (DIOC)—Immigrants by duration of stay. Retrieved April 12, 2012, from http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=DIOC_DURATION_STAY
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2012b). Dataset: Database on immigrants in OECD countries (DIOC)—Immigrants by sector. Retrieved April 12, 2012, from http://stats.oecd.org/OECDStat_Metadata/ShowMetadata.ashx?Dataset=DIOC_SECTOR&ShowOnWeb=true&Lang=en
Pillai, P. (1992). People on the move: An overview of recent immigration and emigration in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Strategic and International Studies.
Pillai, P., & Yusof, Z. A. (1998). Malaysia: Trends and recent developments in international migration. In Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (Ed.), Migration and regional economic integration in Asia (pp. 133–143). Paris and Washington, DC: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Pryor, R. J. (1974). Spatial analysis of internal migration, West Malaysia. Townsville: James Cook University of North Queensland.
Pryor, R. J. (1979a). Malaysia: Patterns of population movement to 1970. In R. J. Pryor (Ed.), Migration and development in South-East Asia: A demographic perspective (pp. 79–97). Kuala Lumpur and New York: Oxford University Press.
Pryor, R. J. (1979b). Migration and development in South-East Asia: A demographic perspective. Kuala Lumpur and New York: Oxford University Press.
Pyvis, D., & Chapman, A. (2007). Why university students choose an international education: A case study in Malaysia. International Journal of Educational Development, 27(2), 235–246.
Reid, A. (2008). Malaysia/Singapore as immigrant societies: The fifteenth Jame C. Jackson memorial lecture 2008. Armidale, NSW: University of New England Asia Centre (for the Malaysia and Singapore Society of Australia).
Reid, A. (2010a). Malaysia/Singapore as immigrant societies (Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series No. 141). Singapore: Asia Research Institute (ARI). Retrieved August 4, 2012, from http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/wps/wps10_141.pdf
Reid, L. J. (1988). The politics of education in Malaysia. Tasmania: University of Tasmania.
Saw, S. H. (1980). Estimation of interstate migration in Peninsular Malaysia, 1947–1970. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS).
Saw, S. H. (2005). Bibliography of Malaysian demography. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS).
Selvaratnam, V. (1988). Ethnicity, inequality, and higher education in Malaysia. Comparative Education Review, 32(2), 173–196.
Sin, I. L. (2006). Malaysian students in Australia: The pursuit of upward mobility. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 15(2), 239–266.
Sin, I. L. (2009). The aspiration for social distinction: Malaysian students in a British university. Studies in Higher Education, 34(3), 285–299.
Sin, I. L. (2013). Cultural capital and distinction: Aspirations of the other foreign student. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 34(5–6), 848–867.
Singapore 21 Subject Committee. (2000). Singapore 21 Subject Committee Reports: Attracting talent vs looking after Singaporeans. Retrieved February 5, 2013, from http://was.nl.sg/wayback/20110111055911/http://www.singapore21.org.sg/dilemma3.doc
Singapore Department of Statistics (DOS). (1981). Census of population 1980, Singapore. Release no. 2, Demographic characteristics. Singapore: Department of Statistics.
Singapore Department of Statistics (DOS). (2011). Census of population 2010. Statistical release 1, Demographic characteristics, education, language and religion. Retrieved January 21, 2013, from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/Publications/publications_and_papers/cop2010/census10_stat_release1.html
Smith, J. P., & Thomas, D. (1998). On the road: Marriage and mobility in Malaysia. Journal of Human Resources, 33(4), 805–832.
Takei, Y., Bock, J. C., & Saunders, B. (1973). Educational sponsorship by ethnicity: A preliminary analysis of the West Malaysian experience. Athens: Center for International Studies, Ohio University.
Teo, C. H. (2011). Twelfth Parliament of Singapore (first session)—Questions for written answer, Tuesday, 22 November 2011: Applications for citizenship and permanent residence. Retrieved December 28, 2012, from https://www.nptd.gov.sg/content/dam/nptd/Parliamentary%20reply%20on%2022%20Nov%202011.pdf
The Star Online. (2015, November 15). Top universities accept the UEC. Retrieved December 25, 2015, from http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2015/11/15/top-universities-accept-the-uec/
The Treasury. (1975). Economic report 1974–75. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Finance.
The World Bank. (2011a). Bilateral migration database 1960–2000. Retrieved December 24, 2015, from http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/global-bilateral-migration-database
The World Bank. (2011b). Bilateral migration matrix 2010. Retrieved December 24, 2015, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-1110315015165/T1.Estimates_of_Migrant_Stocks_2010.xls
The World Bank. (2011c). Emigration rate of tertiary educated (% of total tertiary educated population). Retrieved June 23, 2011, from http://api.worldbank.org/datafiles/SM.EMI.TERT.ZS_Indicator_MetaData_en_EXCEL.zip
The World Bank. (2011d). Malaysia economic monitor: Brain drain. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMALAYSIA/Resources/324392-1303882224029/malaysia_ec_monitor_apr2011_full.pdf
The World Bank. (2011e). Migration and remittances factbook 2011. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Retrieved December 24, 2015, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLAC/Resources/Factbook2011-Ebook.pdf
The World Bank. (2013). Bilateral migration matrix 2013. Retrieved December 24, 2015, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-1288990760745/Bilateral_Migration_Matrix_2013.xlsx
The World Bank. (2015). Improving the effectiveness of TalentCorp’s initiatives: Assessment of Returning Expert Programme & Residence Pass-Talent. Retrieved December 22, 2015, from http://talentcorpbucket.s3-website-ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/assets/contentms/img/template/editor/Report-Talent-Corp-Final-June-23.pdf
UK Border Agency (UKBA). (2010, September 6). Government plans reviews of immigration system. Retrieved February 3, 2012, from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/newsarticles/2010/sept/15-govt-plans-review
UK Border Agency (UKBA). (2011, June 9). BN1: British citizenship. Retrieved August 5, 2012, from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/britishcitizenship/informationleaflets/bnchapters/bn1.pdf?view=Binary
UK Border Agency (UKBA). (2015, April 6). Tier 1 (General) of the Points Based System: Policy guidance. Retrieved February 18, 2015, from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/420151/Tier_1__General__Guidance_04_2015.pdf
UK Home Office. (2009). British citizenship statistics United Kingdom, 2009. Retrieved January 27, 2013, from http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/science-research-statistics/research-statistics/immigration-asylum-research/hosb0910/hosb0910-tabs?view=Binary
UK Home Office. (2015a). Citizenship data tables: Immigration statistics April–June 2015. Retrieved December 18, 2015, from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/455711/citizenship-q2-2015-tabs.ods
UK Home Office. (2015b). Immigration statistics—January to March 2015: Entry clearance visas granted outside the UK. Retrieved December 18, 2015, from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/427901/entry-visas2-q1-2015-tabs.ods
UK Home Office. (2015c, 21 May). Immigration statistics: January to March 2015—6.3 Visas granted by nationality. Retrieved December 18, 2015, from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/immigration-statistics-january-to-march-2015/immigration-statistics-january-to-march-2015#visas-1
UNESCO. (1965). Long-term projections for education in Malaysia: Report of the UNESCO Regional Advisory Team for Educational Planning in Asia. Bangkok: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia.
UNESCO. (1973). The educational statistics system of Malaysia, 1972. Bangkok: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia.
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). (2013). Outbound mobile students (students from a given country studying abroad). UIS data center. Retrieved September 20, 2014, from http://www.uis.unesco.org/Pages/default.aspx
United Chinese School Committees’ Association of Malaysia (UCSCAM). (2012, January 18). The Malaysian Independent Chinese Secondary School (MICSS) and the Unified Examination Certificate (UEC). Retrieved August 6, 2012, from http://www.djz.edu.my/student/shenghua/xiaoxi/MICSS-UEC03.pdf
Vertovec, S. (2009). Transnationalism. London and New York: Routledge.
Wake Up Call Malaysia. (2012). Wake up call Malaysia report. Retrieved March 19, 2012, from http://wakeupcallmalaysia.com/wuc-malaysia-memorandum/
Walker, P. (2014). International student policies in UK higher education from colonialism to the coalition: Developments and consequences. Journal of Studies in International Education, 18(4), 325–344.
Wang, G. (1985). Migration patterns in history: Malaysia and the region. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 58, 43–57.
Wong, D. (1997). Transcience and settlement: Singapore’s foreign labor policy. Asian & Pacific Migration Journal, 6(2), 135–167.
Wong, K. S. (2010, March 4). Speech on population. Speech at the Committee of Supply 2010. Retrieved Jan 27, 2011, from http://www.nps.gov.sg/files/news/DMP%27s%20speech%20on%20population%20at%20COS%2020100304%20-%20final.pdf
Yeoh, B. S. A., & Lin, W. (2012, April). Rapid growth in Singapore’s immigrant population brings policy challenges. Migration Information Source. Retrieved January 31, 2013, from http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=570
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2017 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Koh, S.Y. (2017). A Culture of Migration. In: Race, Education, and Citizenship. Migration, Diasporas and Citizenship. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-50344-2_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-50344-2_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, New York
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-50343-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-50344-2
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)