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Exile

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Family Networks and the Russian Revolutionary Movement, 1870–1940

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Abstract

This chapter discusses the ways in which family members could mitigate the punishment of exile, by sending money and other material support or simply by maintaining correspondence with those convicted. It demonstrates that many family members chose to accompany their kin into exile. Families in exile could help the revolutionary survive by taking on household chores, finding employment and above all providing emotional support. Many revolutionaries married en route to exile in order to share the trials of exile with another. Children could be a comfort to those in exile, though keeping them safe in the harsh climate and poor living conditions of Siberia was difficult. And, just as children could help disguise underground activities, they could also make it easier for exiles to escape.

May 10. How wearying it is to wait! Will they bring me something from Ust-Iansk? And what will it be? How many times a day do I climb to my roof and yearningly look south at the row of guideposts disappearing in the distance. A motionless, dead waste. […] The works of Plato or Soloviev, the books geology and botany refuse to stay in my hands. Even my favourite and tested treatment for loneliness, the study of foreign languages, is of no avail. I am sick of the self-taught method. Is there any mail for me? God!

Vladimir Zenzinov (Vladimir Zenzinov , with Isaac Don Levine, The Road to Oblivion (New York: Robert M. McBride & Company, 1933), p. 87)

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Much of the material for this chapter is drawn from my article ‘Keeping it in the Family: Surviving Political Exile, 1870–1917’, in Canadian Slavonic Papers, 2010, Vol. 52, No. 3–4, pp. 391–415 and is used here with Canadian Slavonic Papers’ kind permission.

  2. 2.

    Vl. Vilenskii (Sibiriakov), ‘Rol’ politicheskoi katorgi i ssylki v Russkoi Revoliutsii’, in Katorga i ssylka , 1923, No. 5, p. 15.

  3. 3.

    Jonathan Daly, ‘Political Crime in Late Imperial Russia’, in The Journal of Modern History, 2002, Vol. 74, No. 1, p. 85; George Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, 2 vols. (London: James R. Osgood, McIlvaine & Co., 1891), Vol. 2, pp. 508–509; A.P. Meshcherskii, ‘Osobennosti, partiinyi sostav politicheskoi ssylki v Sibiri v kontse XIX – nachale XX veka’, in N.N. Shcherbakov, ed., Ssyl’nye revoliutsionery v Sibiri, XIX v. – fevral’ 1917 g. (Irkutsk: Irkutskii Gosudarstevnnyi Universitet Imenii A.A. Zhdanov, 1973), p. 125.

  4. 4.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, p. 29; Daly, ‘Political Crime’, p. 78.

  5. 5.

    Daly, ‘Political Crime’, p. 78.

  6. 6.

    Z. Krzhizhanovskaia-Nevzorova, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 980, l. 3.

  7. 7.

    Stephen F. Jones , Socialism in Georgian Colors: The European Road to Social Democracy, 1883–1917 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2005), p. 70.

  8. 8.

    Meshcherskii, ‘Osobennosti, partiinyi sostav politicheskoi ssylki’, in Shcherbakov, Ssyl’nye revoliutsionery, p. 130.

  9. 9.

    P. Kropotkin, Memoirs of a Revolutionist (New York: Horizon Press, 1968), pp. 425–426. The Trial of the 50 targeted members of the All-Russian Social Revolutionary (Moscow) Organization , while the Trial of the 193 targeted students and revolutionaries, including those who had participated in the Going to the People movement .

  10. 10.

    Daly, ‘Political Crime’, p. 89; Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, p. 25.

  11. 11.

    I.S. Vakhriushev and V.M. Andreev , ‘Korrespondenty L. Lavrova o Sibirskoi ssylke’, in Shcherbakov, Ssyl’nye revoliutsionery, p. 46.

  12. 12.

    Letter, Makarevskii to L. Lavrov , quoted in Vakhriushev and Andreev, ‘Korrespondenty’, in Shcherbakov, Ssyl’nye revoliutsionery, p. 46.

  13. 13.

    N.K. Krupskaia, ‘Lidia Mikhailovna Knipovich’, in V. Ignat’eva, ed., Slavnye bol’shevichki (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1958), p. 182.

  14. 14.

    Leon Trotsky, My Life: The Rise and Fall of a Dictator (London: Thornton Butterworth, Limited, 1930), p. 110.

  15. 15.

    E.D. Stasova , Vospominaniia (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo ‘Mysl’’, 1969), p. 89.

  16. 16.

    V. Kartsev , Krzhizhanovskii (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo ‘Molodaia gvardiia’, 1985), p. 118.

  17. 17.

    Cecelia Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years in Underground Russia (London: Martin Lawrence Ltd, 1934), pp. 156–157.

  18. 18.

    E. A. Anan’in, ‘Iz vospominanii revoliutsionera, 1905–1923 gg.’, in Hoover Institution Archive, Nicolaevsky papers, Series 279, Box 672, Folder 2, p. 20.

  19. 19.

    Eva L’vovna Broido , Memoirs of a Revolutionary, ed. and trans. by Vera Broido (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 143.

  20. 20.

    A. Golub, M.V. Kabanov, G.Z. Mukhina and Iu. Sharapov, Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin: Kratkaia biografiia , 2nd ed. (Moscow: Politizdat, 1980), p. 28.

  21. 21.

    Vera Broido, Daughter of Revolution: A Russian Girlhood Remembered (London: Constable, 1998), p. 43.

  22. 22.

    Iu. Martov, Zapiski sotsial-demokrata (Berlin : Izdatel’stvo Z.I. Grzhebina, 1922), pp. 160–161.

  23. 23.

    A. Moiseenko, Vospominaniia starogo revoliutsionera, ed. Iu.N. Shebaldin (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo ‘Mysl’’, 1966), p. 53 and p. 59; Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, p. 119.

  24. 24.

    Leo Deutsch , Sixteen Years in Siberia, trans. by Helen Chisholm (London: J. Murray, 1905), p. 202.

  25. 25.

    Robert Service, Lenin: A Biography (London: Macmillan, 2000), p. 110; N. Krupskaia, Vospominaniia o Lenine (Moscow: Partiinoe izdatel’stvo, 1932), p. 24.

  26. 26.

    Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, pp. 208–209.

  27. 27.

    ‘Ot redaktsii’, in Vestnik katorgi i ssylki, 1914, No. 1, p. 2.

  28. 28.

    Kropotkin, Memoirs, p. 425; ‘Kak zhivet katorga i ssylka: Narym (Administrativnaia ssylka)’, in Vestnik katorgi i ssylki, 1914, No. 2, p. 18; F. Seniushkin, ‘Iz zhizn’ Ust’-Udinskoi ssylki’, in Katorga i ssylka, 1921, No. 1, p. 94.

  29. 29.

    E.D. Stasova , Vospominaniia (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo ‘Mysl’’, 1969), p. 116.

  30. 30.

    Kropotkin, Memoirs, p. 425.

  31. 31.

    A. Shapovalov, ‘Vospominaniia o vstrechakh s V.I. Leninym (V Sibirskoi ssylke)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1929, No. 1, pp. 73–74.

  32. 32.

    A.P. Salomon, Ssylka v Sibir’: Ocherk’. Eia istorii i sovremennago polozheniia (St Petersburg : Tipografiia S.-Peterburgskoi Tiur’my, 1900) p. i and pp. 151–152.

  33. 33.

    F. Samoilov, ‘Bol’shevistskaia fraktsiia IV gosudarstvennoi dumy v Eniseiskoi ssylke pered Fevral’skoi revoliutsiei’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1927, No. 2–3, p. 223.

  34. 34.

    Marie Sukloff, The Life Story of a Russian Exile (New York: The Century Co., 1914), p. 96 and p. 116.

  35. 35.

    Ia.M. Sverdlov , ‘Massovaia ssylka (1906–1916 gg.)’, in Ia. M. Sverdlov , Izbrannye proizvedeniia: Stat’i, rechi, pis’ma, eds. M.M. Basser and L.V. Ivanova (Moscow; Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1976), p. 45; A. Garvi, Vospominaniia sotsialdemokrata: Stat’i o zhizn’ i deiatel’nosti A. Garvi (New York: Grenich Printing Cor, 1946), p. 296.

  36. 36.

    Garvi, Vospominaniia, p. 296; Letter, V.I. Lenin to M.A. Ul’ianova and M.I. Ul’ianova , 18 May 1897, in Lenin’s Collected Works, 45 Vols. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977), Vol. 37, pp. 106–110, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1897/may/18x.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Barbara Evans Clements , Bolshevik Women (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 85; N.G. Dumova, Sekretar’ MK: povest’ o V.M. Zagorskom (Moscow: Politizdat, 1966), p. 24; Ia. Ianson, ‘Iz zhizni verkholenskoi ssylki (Nemnogo statistiki)’, in Katorga i ssylka, 1922, No. 4, p. 101.

  37. 37.

    Ianson, ‘Iz zhizni verkholenskoi ssylki’, in Katorga i ssylka, 1922, No. 4, p. 101.

  38. 38.

    O. Piatnitsky , Memoirs of a Bolshevik (London: Martin Lawrence Ltd., 1927), pp. 215–216.

  39. 39.

    Moiseenko, Vospominaniia, p. 125; Simon Sebag Montefiore, Young Stalin (London: Phoenix, 2008), p. 99; ‘Anna’, in David Tutaev, David, ed. and trans., The Alliluyev Memoirs: Recollections of Svetlana Stalin’s Maternal Aunt Anna Alliluyeva and her Grandfather Sergei Alliluyev (London: Michael Joseph, 1968), p. 144.

  40. 40.

    A. Garvi, Vospominaniia sotsialdemokrata: Stat’i o zhizn’ i deiatel’nosti A. Garvi (New York: Grenich Printing Cor, 1946), p. 296.

  41. 41.

    Piatnitsky , Memoirs, p. 218.

  42. 42.

    Vakhriushev and Andreev, ‘Korrespondenty’, in Shcherbakov, Ssyl’nye revoliutsionery v Sibiri, p. 49; Deutsch , Sixteen Years, pp. 133–135.

  43. 43.

    Vakhriushev and Andreev, ‘Korrespondenty P.L. Lavrova o sibirskoi ssykle’, in Shcherbakov, Ssyl’nye revoliutsionery v Sibiri, p. 51.

  44. 44.

    Shapovalov, ‘Vospominaniia’, p. 74; Stasova, Vospominaniia, p. 116.

  45. 45.

    Broido, Memoirs, p. 47.

  46. 46.

    Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 27.

  47. 47.

    Moiseenko, Vospominaniia, pp. 63–64.

  48. 48.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, p. 119.

  49. 49.

    Broido, Memoirs, p. 143. See also Sukloff, The Life Story of a Russian Exile, p. 89.

  50. 50.

    Stasova quoted in Clements , Bolshevik Women, p. 99.

  51. 51.

    G.M. Kramarov, Soldat revoliutsii. O Sergee Ivanoviche Guseve (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1970), p. 74.

  52. 52.

    ‘Pis’ma V.P. Nogina k S.V. Andropovy’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 8–9, p. 330 and p. 331; Kramarov, Soldat revoliutsii, pp. 74–75.

  53. 53.

    B.S. Shostakovich, ‘Poliaki – politicheskie ssyl’nye kontsa 70-x – nachala 90-x godov XIX veka – v Sibiri’, in Shcherbakov, Ssyl’nye revoliutsionery v Sibiri, pp. 114–115; see also, N. Nelidov, ‘Tovarishch Makar (V.P. Nogin)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 7, p. 160.

  54. 54.

    Zenzinov, The Road to Oblivion, p. 87.

  55. 55.

    Letter, Ia.M. Sverdlov to K.T. Novgorodtseva-Sverlova, 19 January 1914 (written at 2am) in Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, p. 71.

  56. 56.

    Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 30.

  57. 57.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, p. 325 and p. 54.

  58. 58.

    Lezhava and Nelidov, M.S. Ol’minskii, p. 70.

  59. 59.

    O.A. Lezhava and N.V. Nelidov, M.S. Ol’minskii. Zhizn’ i deiatel’nost’., 2nd edition (Moscow: Politizdat, 1973), p. 67 and p. 70.

  60. 60.

    Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 24.

  61. 61.

    Broido, Daughter of Revolution, p. 45.

  62. 62.

    Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 37.

  63. 63.

    Zenzinov, The Road to Oblivion, pp. 88–89.

  64. 64.

    Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, pp. 124–125.

  65. 65.

    Kropotkin, Memoirs, pp. 425–426.

  66. 66.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, pp. 212–215.

  67. 67.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, pp. 210–212.

  68. 68.

    Kropotkin, Memoirs, p. 306; ‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Leopold H. Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries: Voices from the Menshevik Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 212; Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 35; Broido, Memoirs, p. 28.

  69. 69.

    Stasova, Vospominaniia, p. 115 and p. 120; Katy Turton, Forgotten Lives: The Role of Lenin’s Sisters in the Russian Revolution, 1864–1937 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), p. 66.

  70. 70.

    ‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, p. 168.

  71. 71.

    Moiseenko, Vospominaniia, pp. 59–60.

  72. 72.

    V. Kollenskii, ‘Politicheskaia ssylka administrativnym poriadkom’, in Katorga i ssylka, 1923, No. 5, p. 211.

  73. 73.

    Meshcherskii, ‘Osobennosti, partiinyi sostav politicheskoi ssylki v Sibiri’, in Shcherbakov, Ssyl’nye revoliutsionery, p. 129.

  74. 74.

    Broido, Daughter of Revolution, p. 59; Garvi, Vospominaniia, p. 259.

  75. 75.

    Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 36.

  76. 76.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, p. 186; Stasova, Vospominaniia, p. 118.

  77. 77.

    Clements , Bolshevik Women, p. 99.

  78. 78.

    Salomon, Ssylka v Sibir’, pp. 282–283.

  79. 79.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, p. 377.

  80. 80.

    Vera Figner , Zapechatlennyi trud (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo sotsial’no-ekonomicheskoi ‘Mysl’’, 1964), p. 48; ‘Interview with Boris Nicolaevsky ’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, p. 219. See also, V. Chashchin, ‘Pamiati V.M. Serova’, in Katorga i ssylka, 1922, No. 4, p. 180.

  81. 81.

    Sheila Fitzpatrick, On Stalin’s Team The Years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 26.

  82. 82.

    Stephen Kotkin, Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928 (London: Penguin, 2015), p. 155.

  83. 83.

    Kotkin , Stalin, p. 116, p. 121 and p. 155.

  84. 84.

    Kotkin , Stalin, p. 53.

  85. 85.

    Trotsky, My Life, pp. 111–112.

  86. 86.

    Letter, Lenin to M.A. Ul’ianova and A.I. Ul’ianova , 16 August 1898, in Lenin’s Collected Works, 45 Vols. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977), Vol. 37, pp. 184–185, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1898/aug/16x.htm, last accessed 10 May 2017; Mary Hamilton-Dann, Vladimir and Nadya (New York: International Publishers, 1998), pp. 40–42.

  87. 87.

    ‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, p. 182.

  88. 88.

    Salomon, Ssylka v Sibir’, p. 281.

  89. 89.

    Cecilia Bobrovskaia was not the only woman to return from exile as a single mother with an infant to care for (Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, pp. 214–215).

  90. 90.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, pp. 53–54.

  91. 91.

    Dmitrii Shelestov, Vremia Alekseia Rykova (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1990), p. 81; A.M. Schrader, ‘Unruly Felons and Civilizing Wives: Cultivating Marriage in the Siberian Exile System, 1822–1860’, in Slavic Review, 2007, Vol. 66, No. 2, p. 244; Sarah Badcock is more ambivalent about this, but acknowledges that ‘the warmth of intimate human relations and the joy of children may have brought comfort and a sense of purpose and identity to exiles’ (Sarah Badcock, A Prison without Walls? Eastern Siberian Exile in the Last Years of Tsarism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 95).

  92. 92.

    Schrader, ‘Unruly Felons’, p. 247 and p. 244.

  93. 93.

    ‘Praskovaia Ivanovskaia ’, in Barbara Alpern Engel and Clifford N. Rosenthal, eds., Five Sisters: Women Against the Tsar (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975), p. 140.

  94. 94.

    ‘Praskovaia Ivanovskaia ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 140.

  95. 95.

    Salomon, Ssylka v Sibir’, p. 134; Petr Moiseenko, ‘Morozovskaia stachka’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 1, p. 63.

  96. 96.

    ‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, pp. 52–53 and p. 68.

  97. 97.

    ‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Revolutionaries, p. 53.

  98. 98.

    R.C. Elwood, Inessa Armand : Revolutionary and Feminist (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 55; Ekaterina Vasil’evna Bezrukova , ‘Avtobiografiia’, RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 152, l. 7.

  99. 99.

    Robert McNeal, Bride of the Revolution (London: Gollancz, 1973) 56; Kartsev , Krzhizhanovskii, p. 131.

  100. 100.

    Trotsky, My Life, p. 117; Ian D. Thatcher, Trotsky (London: Routledge, 2002) 48; See extracts of Trotsky’s letters in Dmitrii Volkogonov, Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary, trans. and ed. Harold Shukman (London: HarperCollinsPublishers, 1996), p. 11.

  101. 101.

    Broido, Memoirs, pp. 26–27.

  102. 102.

    Sukloff, The Life Story of a Russian Exile, pp. 233–234.

  103. 103.

    Salomon, Ssylka v Sibir’, p. 134.

  104. 104.

    See, for example, K.N. Gavrilova, ‘Na fronte kul’tury’, in A.V. Berdnikova, Zhenshchiny v revoliutsii (Novosibirsk: Zapadno-sibirskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1968) 34; L. Karaseva, ‘Klavdiia Ivanovna Nikolaeva’, in Ignat’eva, Slavnye bol’shevichki, p. 233.

  105. 105.

    Broido, Daughter of Revolution, p. 63. Unfortunately, Vera Broido does not give the Bolshevik’s surname, though it seems likely it was the Bolshevik Aleksandr Pavlovich Golubkov and his son Pavel. See the Biographies section for more details.

  106. 106.

    Deutsch , Sixteen Years, p. 158; Andrew Gentes, Exile to Siberia, 1590–1822 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2008), p. 176.

    193.

  107. 107.

    Gentes, Exile to Siberia, p. 193.

  108. 108.

    Gentes, Exile to Siberia, p. 176.

  109. 109.

    A. Moiseenko, Vospominaniia starogo revoliutsionera, ed. Iu.N. Shebaldin (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo ‘Mysl’’, 1966), pp. 54–60 and p. 123.

  110. 110.

    Iu. Steklov, ‘Vospominaniia o iakutskoi ssylke (1896-1899)’, in Katorga i ssylka, 1923, No. 6, p. 75.

  111. 111.

    Deutsch , Sixteen Years, p. 202; V.M. Chernov, V partii Sotsialistov-Revoliutsionerov: vospominaniia o vos’mi liderakh, ed. by M.E. Ustinov (St. Petersburg : Izdatel’stvo ‘Dmitrii Bulanin’, 2007) p. 356; Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, pp. 25–27.

  112. 112.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, pp. 212–214; Cathy Porter, Fathers and Daughters: Russian Women in Revolution (London: Virago, 1976), p. 278.

  113. 113.

    Gentes, Exile to Siberia, p. 193.

  114. 114.

    ‘Minor Osip Solomonovich (1861–1932)’, in Chernov, V partii Sotsialistov-Revoliutsionerov, p. 356.

  115. 115.

    Hamilton-Dann, Vladimir and Nadya, p. 40; see also Letter, Lenin to M.A. Ul’lianova, 16 September 1898, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 37, pp. 188–189, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1898/sep/16mau.htm, last accessed 10 May 2017.

  116. 116.

    Sukloff, The Life Story of a Russian Exile, pp. 233–234.

  117. 117.

    Broido, Memoirs, p. 143. Vera, her third daughter, had not yet appeared on the scene.

  118. 118.

    Aino Kuusinen, Before and After Stalin: A Personal Account of Soviet Russia from the 1920s to the 1960s, trans. by Paul Stevenson, foreword by Wolfgang Leonhard (London: Michael Joseph, 1974), p. 179.

  119. 119.

    E. Preobrazhenskii , ‘Evgeniia Bogdanovna Bosh ’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 2, p. 9.

  120. 120.

    Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 24.

  121. 121.

    Anna Hillyar and Jane McDermid, Revolutionary Women in Russia, 1870–1917. A Study in Collective Biography (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), p. 36.

  122. 122.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, p. 193.

  123. 123.

    Kartsev , Krzhizhanovskii, pp. 117–118.

  124. 124.

    Natal’ia Alekseevna Aleksandrova, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 30, l. 5 ob.

  125. 125.

    Garvi, Vospominaniia, p. 259 and p. 326.

  126. 126.

    Letter, Faina Ivanovna Rykova to Arkhangel’sk Governor, 12 March 1910, GARF, f. 1764, o. 1, d. 4, l.7.

  127. 127.

    Report to Arkhangel’sk Governor, 3 April 1910, GARF, f. 1764, o. 1, d. 4, l.14; Letter, Arkhangel’sk Police Chief to Arkhangel’sk Governor, 7 April 1910, GARF, f. 1764, o. 1, d. 4, l.16.

  128. 128.

    See, for example, Ol’ga Evgen’evna Allilueva, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 40, l. 11; Natal’ia Aleksandrova, ‘Sil’naia dukhom (E.S. Shlikhter)’, in L. Zhak and A.M. Itkina, eds., Zhenshchiny russkoi revoliutsiia (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1968), p. 543; L. Krechet, ‘Sof’ia Nikolaevna Smidovich ’, in Ignat’eva, Slavnye bol’shevichki, p. 281.

  129. 129.

    Kramarov, Soldat revoliutsii, p. 59.

  130. 130.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, pp. 324–325.

  131. 131.

    K.T. Sverdlova (Novgorodtseva), Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov . Vospominaniia. (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo TsK VLKSM, Molodaia gvardiia, 1939), pp. 68–69; A. Moiseenko, Vospominaniia starogo revoliutsionera, ed. Iu.N. Shebaldin (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo ‘Mysl’’, 1966), p. 133.

  132. 132.

    Salomon, Ssylka v Sibir’, pp. 133–134.

  133. 133.

    Moiseenko, Vospominaniia, p. 123.

  134. 134.

    ‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, p. 168; Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 29.

  135. 135.

    A. Stopani , ‘Nakanune i posle II c”ezda RSDRP (Nabroski iz vospominanii: Pskov – II c”ezd – Iaroslavl’)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1926, No. 1, p. 87.

  136. 136.

    Kennan , Siberia and the Exile System, Vol. 2, pp. 188–189.

  137. 137.

    Shapovalov, ‘Vospominaniia’, p. 74; Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 31.

  138. 138.

    Zinaida Pavlovna Nevzorova-Krzhizhanovskii, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 980, l. 3.

  139. 139.

    Miklós Kun, Stalin: An Unknown Portrait (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2003), p. 174.

  140. 140.

    Moiseenko, Vospominaniia, pp. 123–124 and p. 127; Broido, Daughter of Revolution, pp. 67–69.

  141. 141.

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    Katy Turton

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Turton, K. (2018). Exile. In: Family Networks and the Russian Revolutionary Movement, 1870–1940. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-0-230-39308-0_4

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