The Underground

Turton, Katy

doi:10.1057/978-0-230-39308-0_2

Katy Turton²

218 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter describes the range of roles which family members took on in the revolutionary movement, including keeping safe houses for revolutionaries, donating money to the cause and providing other forms of material support. It discusses the way in which spouses cooperated closely in leading party cells and the various tasks which parents assigned to their children. It also acknowledges that family concerns at times disrupted revolutionaries’ activities. Combining revolutionary activities with family life and especially parenthood caused difficulties and often helped perpetuate traditional gender roles in a community which was theoretically committed to women’s emancipation and equality. Conversely, the appearance of traditional domesticity proved to be a useful disguise for illegal activities.

I was born on 7 October 1907 […], as my mother’s fourth and last child. […] Father was hiding from the police in Finland . There was, of course, no way of reaching him—but just then a Menshevik from Moscow , Vasilii Sher, appeared unannounced on the doorstep, on the run from the Moscow police. Mother immediately dispatched him to Finland , to find my father and tell him the glad news. No sooner had he departed than an unknown comrade arrived from Moscow just too late to inform him that his own wife too had just given birth to a daughter.

Vera Broido (Vera Broido , Daughter of Revolution: A Russian Girlhood Remembered (London: Constable, 1998), p. 27).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

1.
P. Kropotkin , Memoirs of a Revolutionist (New York: Horizon Press, 1968), p. 321.
2.
Sergei Stepniak, Underground Russia: Revolutionary Profiles and Sketches from Life (London: Smith, Elder, & Co., 1890), p. 57.
3.
L. Kunetskaia and K. Mashtakova, Mariia Ul’ianova (Moscow : Molodaia gvardiia, 1979), p. 39.
4.
The Russia I Believe In: The Memoirs of Samuel N. Harper , 1902–1941, ed. by Paul V. Harper with the assistance of Ronald Thomson (Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1945), p. 14.
5.
The Russia I Believe In, p. 14.
6.
O. Piatnitsky , Memoirs of a Bolshevik (London: Martin Lawrence Ltd., 1927), p. 69.
7.
P.P. Elizarov, Mark Elizarov i sem’ia Ul’ianovykh (Moscow : Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1967), p. 87.
8.
Cecilia Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years in Underground Russia (London: Martin Lawrence Ltd., 1934), pp. 36–37. Cecilia’s full name was Tsetsiliia Samoilovna Zelikson-Bobrovskaia.
9.
N. Krupskaia, Vospominaniia o Lenine (Moscow : Partiinoe izdatel’stvo, 1932), p. 131.
10.
‘Vera Zasulich’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, pp. 89–90.
11.
Leopold H. Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries: Voices from the Menshevik Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 456.
12.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 232.
13.
prishche’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1926, No. 1, p. 120 and p. 130.
14.
A. Sukhov , ‘Revoliutsiia 1905 g. v Nizhnem i Sormove (Vospominaniia agitatora)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 11, p. 235.
15.
Smirnov, ‘Revoliutsionnaia rabota v Finlandii’, p. 137.
16.
‘Vera Figner ’, in Barbara Alpern Engel and Clifford N. Rosenthal, eds., Five Sisters: Women Against the Tsar (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975), p. 39.
17.
R.C. Elwood, ‘Lenin and the Brussels ‘Unity’ Conference of July 1914’, in Russian Review, 1980, Vol. 39, No. 1, p. 44.
18.
A.S. Allilueva, Vospominaniia (Moscow : Sovetskii pisatel’, 1946), pp. 52–55. This was not the only time the Alliluev children helped to smuggle cartridges. See Ol’ga Evgen’evna Allilueva, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 40, l. 11.
19.
G.M. Kramarov, Soldat revoliutsii: o Sergee Ivanoviche Guseve (Moscow : Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1970), p. 58.
20.
Stephen Kotkin , Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928 (Penguin, 2015), p. 114.
21.
Tova Yedlin, Maxim Gorky: A Political Biography (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1999), p. 81.
22.
Tat’iana Ivanova Vulikh, ‘Memoirs’, in Hoover Institution Archive, Nicolaevsky Papers, Series 134, Box 207, Folder 10, p. 1.
23.
‘Elizaveta Kovalskaia’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 238.
24.
I.D. Remezovksii, Ul’ianovy v Kieve : 1903–1904 gg. (Kiev : Izdatel’stvo pri kievskom gosudarstvennom universitete, 1979), p. 8; Barbara Evans Clements , Bolshevik Women (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 25; Miklós Kun, Stalin: An Unknown Portrait (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2003), p. 129; Simon Sebag Montefiore, Young Stalin (London: Phoenix, 2008), p. 122; Anna Larina, This I Cannot Forget: The Memoirs of Nikolai Bukharin’s Widow, introduction by Stephen F. Cohen, trans. by Gary Kern (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1994), p. 206.
25.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 116.
26.
‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, pp. 210–211.
27.
S. Shiriaev, ‘Avtobiograficheskaia zapiska S. Shiriaeva’, introduction by R.M. Kantor, in Krasnyi Arkhiv, 1924, No. 7, p. 76. In fact, his request for a passport was rejected, but he went abroad anyway.
28.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 47.
29.
Stephen F. Jones , Socialism in Georgian Colors: The European Road to Social Democracy, 1883–1917 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2005), p. 60; see also M.M. Shneerov, ‘Memoirs’, in Hoover Institution Archive, Nicolaevsky Papers, Series 232, Box 392, Folder 10, p. 11.
30.
Avrahm Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution: A Century of Russian Radicalism (London: Cassell, 1957), p. 180.
31.
Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, pp. 231–232.
32.
‘Vera Figner ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 31; Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 314.
33.
William Reswick , I Dreamt Revolution (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1952), p. 209.
34.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, pp. 141–142.
35.
Adam B. Ulam, In the Name of the People: Prophets and Conspirators in Pre-Revolutionary Russia: Prophets and Conspirators in Prerevolutionary Russia (New York: The Viking Press, 1977), pp. 150–151 and pp. 177–178.
36.
Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 180.
37.
Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 137.
38.
Clements , Bolshevik Women, p. 69.
39.
N.B. Bogdanova, Men’shevik (St Petersburg : Nauchno-informatsionnyi tsentre ‘Memorial’, 1994), p. 19.
40.
‘Elizaveta Kovalskaia’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 228 and p. 237.
41.
‘Anna’, in The Alliluyev Memoirs: Recollections of Svetlana Stalin’s Maternal Aunt Anna Alliluyeva and her Grandfather Sergei Alliluyev, ed. and trans. by David Tutaev (London: Michael Joseph, 1968), p. 159.
42.
‘Olga Liubatovich ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 169.
43.
Ulam, In the Name of the People, pp. 380–381.
44.
N. Leshchinskii, ‘Rabota sotsial-demokratov v Stavropolegubernskom (1904–1907 g.g.)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 4, p. 129.
45.
Clements , Bolshevik Women, p. 37.
46.
Leon Trotsky, My Life: The Rise and Fall of a Dictator (London: Thornton Butterworth Ltd., 1930), pp. 149–150.
47.
‘Anna’, in The Alliluyev Memoirs, pp. 39–40.
48.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, p. 195.
49.
K.T. Sverdlova (Novgorodtseva), Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov. Vospominaniia (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo TsK VLKSM, Molodaia gvardiia, 1939), p. 78; Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, p. 134.
50.
Rees, E.A., Iron Lazar: A Political Biography of Lazar Kaganovich (London: Anthem Press, 2012), p. 7.
51.
N. Nelidov, ‘Tovarishch Makar (V.P. Nogin)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 7, p. 157.
52.
‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, p. 140.
53.
Olga Chernov Andreyev, Cold Spring in Russia, trans. by Michael Carlisle (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1978), p. 30.
54.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, pp. 115–116.
55.
V. Kartsev , Krzhizhanovskii (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo ‘Molodaia gvardiia’, 1985), p. 200; P. Kushner, ‘Russkii kul’turnyi tsentr v 1908–1915 g.g.’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 8–9, p. 210; S. Balashov , ‘Rabochee dvizhenie v Ivanovo-Voznesenske (1898–1905 gg.)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 9, p. 156.
56.
See for example E.A. Elagina, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 633, l. 6 and l. 6 ob.
57.
S.S. Khromov, Felix Dzerzhinsky: A Biography (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1988), p. 15. See also Eva L’vovna Broido, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, ed. and trans. by Vera Broido (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 76–77.
58.
Marie Sukloff, The Life Story of a Russian Exile (New York: The Century Co., 1914), p. 71.
59.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, pp. 152–153.
60.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, p. 177.
61.
Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 214.
62.
N. Leshchinskii, ‘Rabota sotsial-demokratov v Stavropolegubernskom (1904–1907 g.g.)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 4, pp. 127–128.
63.
‘Elizaveta Kovalskaia’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 221.
64.
‘Vera Figner ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, pp. 51–52; Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 236.
65.
Vera Figner , Memoirs of a Revolutionist (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1991), pp. 139–141.
66.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, p. 135 and p. 116.
67.
Clements , Bolshevik Feminist, p. 25.
68.
Clements , Bolshevik Women, p. 37; E.A. Anan’in, ‘Iz vospominanii revoliutsionera, 1905–1923 gg.’, in Hoover Institution Archive, Nicolaevsky Papers, Series 279, Box 672, Folder 2, p. 13.
69.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, p. 37.
70.
Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 137.
71.
Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 253; see also Stepniak, Underground Russia, p. 152.
72.
Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 273; Figner, Memoirs, p. 51.
73.
Sergei Sulimov (‘Petr’), ‘Vospominaniia o boevoi tekhnicheskoi gruppe pri TsK partii (1905–1907 gg.)’ in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 7, p. 90.
74.
Kitty Lam, ‘Russia’s Revolutionaries on Vacation: Anti-Government Activities in the Finnish Countryside’, in Historical Research, 2017, Vol. 90, No. 247, p. 64.
75.
‘Anna’, in The Alliluyev Memoirs, pp. 39–40.
76.
Kartsev , Krzhizhanovskii, p. 161; Rees, Iron Lazar, p. 7. Lengnik and Kranikhfel’d are referred to in the biographical list. Gazenbush might be K.K. Gazenbush, who was a member of the Russian Iskra organization, or A.G. Gazenbush; the latter worked together with K.K. Gazenbush in Kuban in 1907 as a Bolshevik organizer. Presumably they were a married couple.
77.
Michael Melancon, The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Russian Anti-War Movement, 1914–1917 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990), p. 27.
78.
Israel Getzler , Martov: A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. 3.
79.
Security police report, sent to the Minister of the Interior, St Petersburg , May 1912, quoted in Kartsev , Krzhizhanovskii, pp. 238–239.
80.
Kropotkin, Memoirs, pp. 355–356.
81.
Kartsev , Krzhizhanovskii, p. 196.
82.
Balashov , ‘Rabochee dvizhenie v Ivanovo-Voznesenske ’, p. 161; Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 195.
83.
Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 195.
84.
Kun, Stalin, p. 42.
85.
S. Mitskevich’s description of the Bolshevik Moscow Committee in 1905 captures this gendered division of labour (S. Mitskevich, ‘Lektorskaia gruppa pri Moskovskom komitete v 1905–1907 gg.’ in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 9, p. 51 and p. 55).
86.
Katy Turton, Forgotten Lives: The Role of Lenin’s Sisters in the Russian Revolution, 1864–1937 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), p. 56.
87.
Yedlin, Gorky, p. 33.
88.
Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 237; Sarah Ashwin, ‘Review: Women’s Lives under Socialism’, in Labour/Le Travail, 2002, Vol. 50, pp. 261–273, p. 266.
89.
Kartsev , Krzhizhanovskii, p. 217.
90.
Svetlana Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend, trans. by Priscilla Johnson (London: World Books, 1968), p. 46.
91.
Tova Yedlin, ‘Maxim Gorky: His Early Revolutionary Activity and his Involvement in the Revolution of 1905’, in Canadian Slavonic Papers/Revue Canadienne des Slavistes, 1975, Vol. 17, No. 1, p. 89; Yedlin, Gorky, pp. 33–34.
92.
Broido, Memoirs, p. 91.
93.
E. Belen’kii , ‘K istorii Minskoi organisatsii RSDRP(b) v 1903–1905 gg. ’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 8, p. 71.
94.
Belen’kii , ‘K istorii Minskoi organisatsii RSDRP(b)’, p. 71.
95.
Piatnitsky , Memoirs, p. 114.
96.
Piatnitsky , Memoirs, p. 51.
97.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, p. 115.
98.
L. Krechet, ‘Sof’ia Nikolaevna Smidovich ’, in V. Ignat’eva, ed., Slavnye bol’shevichki (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1958), p. 281.
99.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 117.
100.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 66.
101.
Kravchinskii quoted in Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 214.
102.
Jonathan W. Daly, ‘Government, Press, and Subversion in Russia, 1906–1917’, in The Journal of the Historical Society, 2009, Vol. 9, No. 1, p. 25.
103.
Broido, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, p. 77.
104.
Michael Pearson, The Sealed Train: Journey to Revolution; Lenin—1917 (London: Fontana Paperbacks, 1989), p. 168; ‘Anna’, in The Alliluyev Memoirs, p. 73; E.A. Anan’in, ‘Iz vospominanii revoliutsionera, 1905–1923 gg.’, in Hoover Institution Archive, Nicolaevsky Papers, Series 279, Box 672, Folder 2, p. 13.
105.
Piatnitsky , Memoirs, p. 48.
106.
Ivan Alexandrovich Yukhotsky, ‘Prisoner of the Tsar’, in Norman Stone and Michael Glenny, Other Russia (London: Faber and Faber, 1990), p. 79.
107.
The Russia I Believe In, pp. 43–44.
108.
Broido, Memoirs, p. 123.
109.
A frequent visitor was not included in the list of tenants all doormen kept for the police (Joel Carmichael in N.N. Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution 1917: Eyewitness Account, Vol. 1, ed., abridged and trans. by Joel Carmichael (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1962), p. 3).
110.
Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution, p. 3.
111.
Piatnitsky , Memoirs, p. 48.
112.
‘Avtobiograficheskoe zaiavlenie A.A. Kviatkovskogo,’ in Krasnyi arkhiv, 1926, Vol. 1, No. 14, p. 162.
113.
E.A. Anan’in, ‘Iz vospominanii revoliutsionera, 1905–1923 gg.’, in Hoover Institution Archive, Nicolaevsky Papers, Series 279, Box 672, Folder 2, p. 6.
114.
Piatnitsky , Memoirs, p. 102.
115.
A.K. Petrov, ‘K 35-letnemy iubileiu pervykh s.-d. rabochikh kruzhkov v Kazani (1889–1924 g.g.)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 2, p. 188.
116.
‘Praskovia Ivanovskaia ’ in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, pp. 114–115.
117.
Elena Loskutova, ‘Dorogoi nepokorennykh (E.F. Rozmirovich)’, in L.P. Zhak and A.M. Itkina, eds., Zhenshchiny russkoi revoliutsiia (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1968), pp. 388–389.
118.
‘Anna’, in The Alliluyev Memoirs, p. 38.
119.
‘Vospominaniia S.Ia. Allilueva i N.A. Emel’ianova o prebyvanii V.I. Lenina i G.E. Zinov’eva v podpol’e (v Raslive) v 1917 g. v Rossii i ob iul’skikh sobytiiakh v Rossii’, in RGASPI, f. 324, o. 1, ed. khr. 8, l. 5; Clements , Bolshevik Women, p. 89.
120.
M.V. Fofanova , ‘Poslednee podpol’e’, in A.F. Smirnov, ed., Oktiabr’ v Petrograde : stat’i, vospominaniia, dokumenty (Moscow: ‘Sovremennik’, 1987), p. 97.
121.
‘Anna’, in The Alliluyev Memoirs, p. 120.
122.
Abraham Ascher, Pavel Axelrod and the Development of Menshevism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972), p. 43.
123.
M. Latsis, ‘Podpol’naia rabota v Moskve (1914–1915)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 10, p. 201 and p. 205.
124.
E. Golubeva, ‘Mariia Petrovna Golubeva’, in Ignat’eva, Slavnye bol’shevichki, p. 128. E. Golubeva writes that the search occurred in 1907 or 1908.
125.
Elena Loskutova, ‘Dorogoi nepokorennykh (E.F. Rozmirovich)’, in Zhak and Itkina, Zhenshchiny russkoi revoliutsiia, pp. 388–389.
126.
Golubeva, in Ignat’eva, Slavnye bol’shevichki, p. 128.
127.
Broido, Memoir, pp 139–140.
128.
Letter, M.A. Ul’ianova to A.I. Elizarova , 26 April 1910, in N.N. Simagin and A.G. Vinogradova, eds., Perepiska sem’i Ul’ianovykh, 1883–1917, p. 224 (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1969), p. 224. For another example of a mother warning her son’s revolutionary comrade of his imminent arrest, see Iu.O. Martov, Zapiski sotsial-demokrata, ed. P.Iu. Savel’ev (Moskva: ROSSPEN, 2004), p. 55 and p. 76.
129.
See, for example, Nikolai Emel’ianovich Aivasov, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 20, l. 10 ob.
130.
Smirnov, ‘Revoliutsionnaia rabota v Finlandii’, pp. 155–156.
131.
These ideas are also discussed in my chapter ‘Gender and Family in the Russian Revolutionary Movement’, in Melanie Ilic, ed., Palgrave Handbook on Women and Gender in Twentieth-Century Russia and the Soviet Union (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
132.
See, for example, Clements , Bolshevik Women, pp. 81–91; Anna Hillyar, and Jane McDermid, Revolutionary Women in Russia, 1870–1917. A Study in Collective Biography (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), pp. 171–176.
133.
‘Praskovaia Ivanovskaia ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 118.
134.
‘Praskovaia Ivanovskaia ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 119–120.
135.
See, for example, Kun, Stalin, pp. 99–100; A. Kiselev, ‘V iule 1914 goda (Iz vospominanii)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 7, p. 39.
136.
A. Katanskaia , ‘Astrakhanskaia typograpfiia (1901–1903 g.g.)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 6, p. 213 and p. 214.
137.
Lev Tikhomirov cited in Barbara Alpern Engel, ‘The Emergence of Women Revolutionaries in Russia’, in Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 1977, Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 99.
138.
Nikolay Valentinov (N.V. Volsky), Encounters with Lenin, trans. by Paul Rosta and Brian Pearce, foreward by Leonard Schapiro (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 84.
139.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 120 and p. 146.
140.
Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 69.
141.
Kropotkin, Memoirs, pp. 317–318.
142.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 118.
143.
Kun, Stalin, p. 192; Broido, Daughter of Revolution, p. 60; Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 27.
144.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, p. 94; ‘Anna’, Alliluyev Memoirs, p. 139.
145.
A.N. Emel’ianova, ‘Rasskaz o moei materi’, in S.F. Vinogradova, E.A. Gilyarova, M.Ya. Razumova (eds), Leningradki: vospominaniya, ocherki, dokumenty (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1967), p. 74.
146.
‘Anna’, in The Alliluyev Memoirs, pp. 146–147.
147.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 239.
148.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 201.
149.
Mary Hamilton-Dann, Vladimir and Nadya (New York: International Publishers, 1998), p. 218. See also Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 239.
150.
‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, p. 68.
151.
Latsis, ‘Podpol’naia rabota v Moskve’, pp. 190–191.
152.
Kiselev, ‘V iule 1914 goda’, p. 44; Ol’ga Evgen’evna Allilueva, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 40, l. 7; Sulimov, ‘Vospominaniia’, p. 94.
153.
Kropotkin, Memoirs, p. 424.
154.
Letter, Krupskaia to M.A. Ul’ianova , 14 October 1898, in Lenin’s Collected Works, 45 Vols. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977), Vol. 37, pp. 569–571, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1898/oct/14.htm, last accessed on 11 May 2017.
n401; Ian D. Thatcher, Trotsky (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 137.
155.
I. Iurenov, ‘“Mezhrainoka” (1911–1917 g.g.) (Vospominaniia)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 1, pp. 109–139, p. 127; see also Samuel H. Baron, Plekhanov: The Father of Russian Marxism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1963), p. 258.
156.
Turton, Forgotten Lives, p. 32 and p. 64; Kartsev , Krzhizhanovskii, pp. 215–216.
157.
Yedlin, Gorky, p. 15 and p. 16. Shortly after this relationship broke up, Gorky married Ekaterina Pavlovna Peshkova , née Volzhina.
158.
Ascher, Pavel Axelrod, pp. 82–83.
159.
Barbara C. Allen, Alexander Shlyapnikov, 1885–1937: Life of an Old Bolshevik (Chicago, IL.: Haymarket Books, 2015), p. 59.
160.
‘Interview with George Denike’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, p. 386.
161.
Iu. Denike, ‘Memoirs’, in Hoover Institution Archive, Nicolaevsky papers, Series 279, Box 672, Folder 11, p. 36.
162.
Ulam, In the Name of the People, p. 396.
163.
Sukloff, The Life Story of a Russian Exile, p. 209.
164.
‘Interview with Lydia Dan’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, p. 157.
165.
Abraham Ascher, ed., The Mensheviks in the Russian Revolution (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976), p. 16; Ascher, Pavel Axelrod, pp. 232–233.
166.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 151 and p. 200.
167.
Kiselev, ‘V iule 1914 goda’, p. 40.
168.
Larina, This I Cannot Forget, pp. 209–210.
169.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, p. 150.
170.
Bobrovskaya, Twenty Years, pp. 214–215.
171.
Vasilieva, Larissa, Kremlin Wives, ed. and trans. by Cathy Porter (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1994), p. 117.
172.
See, for example, the autobiographies of K.N. Gavrilova, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 426 and E.A. Elagina, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 633, l. 6 and l. 6 ob in which these Bolshevik women ceased temporarily their active role in the party in order to care for children.
173.
I. Iurenov, ‘“Mezhraionka ” (1911–1917 g.g.) (Vospominaniia)’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 1, p. 110.
174.
‘Olga Liubatovich ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 164.
175.
Ascher, Pavel Axelrod, p. 32.
176.
A. Tishkov, ‘Feliks Edmundovich Dzerzhinskii ’, in S. Semanov, ed. Kommunisty: Sbornik (Moscow: ‘Molodaia gvardiia’, 1976), p. 257; S. Dzerzhinskaia, V gody velikikh boev (Moscow: Mysl’, 1964), p. 268; Figes, The Whisperers, pp. 1–2.
177.
P.A. Garvi, Zapiski sotsial-demokrata (1906–1921) (Newtonville, MA.: Oriental Research Partners, 1982), p. 90.
178.
‘Interview with Boris Nicolaevsky’, in Haimson, The Making of Three Russian Revolutionaries, p. 219; Lubov Krassin, Leonid Krassin: His Life and Work (London: Skeffington, 1929), pp. 39–40.
179.
André Liebich, ‘The Mensheviks’ and Michael Melancon, ‘Neo-Populism in Early Twentieth-Century Russsia: The Socialist Revolutionary Party from 1900–1917’, in Anna Geifman, ed., Russia Under the Last Tsar: Opposition and Subversion (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1999), p. 24 and p. 81.
180.
E. Preobrazhenskii , ‘Evgeniia Bogdanovna Bosh ’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 2, p. 7; Clements, Bolshevik Women, p. 27.
181.
Preobrazhenskii , ‘Evgeniia Bogdanovna Bosh ’, p. 8.
182.
Ascher, Pavel Axelrod, pp. 42–43.
183.
Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 26.
184.
Andreyev, Cold Spring, pp. 38–39 and p. 45.
185.
Kun, Stalin, p. 154.
186.
Trotsky, My Life, p. 200.
187.
‘Anna’, in The Alliluyev Memoirs, p. 75.
188.
Smidovich’s biographer stresses on several occasions that Lunacharskii suffered from a long-term illness, perhaps implying that if he had been well, he would not have cared for his daughter (L. Krechet, ‘Sof’ia Nikolaevna Smidovich ’, in Ignat’eva, Slavnye bol’shevichki, p. 277).
189.
‘Olga Liubatovich ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, P. 162.
190.
Elizarov, Mark Elizarov, p. 112.
191.
Georgii Iakovlevich Lozgachev-Elizarov, Nezabyvaemoe (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1970), p. 116.
192.
‘Olga Liubatovich ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 195.
193.
Natal’ia Aleksandrova, ‘Sil’naia dukhom (E.S. Shlikhter)’, in Zhak and Itkina, Zhenshchiny russkoi revoliutsiia, p. 543.
194.
Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 209.
195.
‘Anna’, in The Alliluyev Memoirs, p. 71.
196.
Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 60.
197.
Broido, Daughter of Revolution, p. 42.
198.
Elizaveta Drabkina , quoted in Tamara Leont’eva, ‘Partiinaia klichka Natasha (F.I. Drabkina )’, Zhak and Itkina, Zhenshchiny russkoi revoliutsiia, p. 103.
199.
‘Vera Figner ’, in Engel and Rosenthal, Five Sisters, p. 39.
200.
Figner, Memoirs, p. 12.
201.
Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters, p. 53.
202.
Stephen Kotkin , Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928 (London: Penguin, 2015), p. 124 and p. 193; Kun, Stalin, p. 130.
203.
See, for example, André Liebich, From the Other Shore: Russian Social Democracy after 1921 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997), p. 355 and Kotkin , Stalin, p. 118.
204.
Liebich, From the Other Shore, pp. 40–41.
205.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, pp. 71–72.
206.
Valentinov, Encounters with Lenin, p. 241; Liebich, From the Other Shore, p. 39 and p. 21.
207.
Liebich, From the Other Shore, p. 39.
208.
Bakunin, quoted in Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, p. 164.
209.
Krupskaia, Vospominaniia, p. 74.
210.
Iankel’ Iudelevskii’s pamphlet ‘The Azefshchina on Trial’ , quoted in Nurit Schleifman , Undercover Agents in the Russian Revolutionary Movement: The SR Party, 1902–1914 (Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1988), pp. 111–112.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

School of History, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK
Katy Turton

Authors

Katy Turton
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katy Turton .

Copyright information

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Turton, K. (2018). The Underground. In: Family Networks and the Russian Revolutionary Movement, 1870–1940. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-0-230-39308-0_2

Download citation

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-0-230-39308-0_2
Published: 05 December 2017
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-0-230-39307-3
Online ISBN: 978-0-230-39308-0
eBook Packages: HistoryHistory (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics