Abstract
In this chapter, we explore the roles of education and schooling in reproducing and transforming our shared social worlds. What aspects of a society schools should reproduce and what aspects they should transform are political questions, about which reasonable people may disagree. We discuss Lundgren’s theory of curriculum , and we examine two kinds of theories of cultural, economic and social reproduction : correspondence theories and contestation theories. In the light of these theories, we look briefly at how relative disadvantage can be ‘inherited’ by marginalised groups in a society. We also explore how contestation unsettles established arrangements in a society, and how institutionalisation resettles things, often in new arrangements . We argue that it is crucial for people in the education profession to understand how contestation and institutionalisation happen in schools and societies, in order to understand how cultural, economic and social arrangements can be reproduced, and how they can be transformed. When education professionals understand how education and schooling have evolved through history , they can begin to envisage how new forms of education and schooling can reshape cultures, economies and societies.
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Notes
- 1.
For an outline of many key figures in progressive education, see Connell’s (1980) History of education in the twentieth century world.
- 2.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
See Kemmis with Fitzclarence (1986, pp. 82–88).
- 6.
- 7.
The questions of what it means to ‘represent’ a thing, and what counts as a ‘representation’ is a vexed question (i.e. it is still being debated but unresolved). Unlike Lundgren, others (e.g. Derrida 1976) might contest whether representations must occur in ‘texts’—and would contest what counts as ‘text ’ and the relations (like ‘intertextuality’) between different texts. Some issues in literacy and education are canvassed by different authors in the volume The insistence of the letter edited by Green (1993). Foucault (e.g. 1970) wrote penetratingly about the emergence of the idea of representation as a key feature of knowledge ; in Philosophy and the mirror of Nature, Rorty (1979) showed how understandings of science and rationality have been shaped by the image of the eye as a metaphor for what it means to represent something. On cultural difference and issues in representation, see also Stuart Hall (1997). Theorists using the approach of critical discourse analysis, like Norman Fairclough (1995) show how language (and representation) means different things to different people, often carrying implicit messages about power relationships.
- 8.
Many theorists view education as a process of reproduction , though the view is not without its critics (for example, Arnot 2002). Bourdieu and Passeron (1977) wrote the classic text on education as reproduction . In the USA, the ‘correspondence theory ’ of education as reproduction was developed by Bowles and Gintis (1976; see also Gintis 1973). This was challenged and developed in ‘contestation theories’ of reproduction including work by Apple (1979, 1981, 1982), Connell et al. (1982), Feinberg (Feinberg 1983), Giroux (1981, 1983), Kemmis with Fitzclarence (1986), Whitty (2002) and Willis (1977).
- 9.
Described as ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ in Lave and Wenger (1991).
- 10.
On the distinction between the technical and social divisions of labour, see David Hamilton’s excellent introduction to education as a field —his (1990) book Learning about education: An unfinished curriculum .
- 11.
- 12.
These processes are among those that have been the subject of the whole field of curriculum , since Tyler’s (1949) classic text , through such other classics as Stenhouse (1975) to McNeil (2006). Bernstein (1977, 1996) also considers issues of curriculum and pedagogy from a sociological perspective.
- 13.
There are thus perennial debates about what all students should learn , especially in the compulsory years of schooling , and debates about what should be in the common curriculum . Different nations and states define curricula in different ways. You might like to search on line for examples of different syllabus or curriculum documents in your nation or state, and compare them with curriculum documents in other countries.
- 14.
This is a particular issue in relation to inclusive education of various kinds. You might try searching on line for policy documents in your state, for example, policies about equity and inclusion, gender, transgender issues, multiculturalism, Indigenous education or the education of students with special needs.
- 15.
In a challenging article in the Teachers College Record, Luke (2004) describes the greatly changed circumstances of curriculum formulation at the beginning of the twenty-first century, arguing that education systems are proceeding with curriculum development aimed at economic skills formation and national citizenship through the production of curricula that do not fully comprehend the vastly changed circumstances (e.g. post-industrial, globalised) of contemporary life . Increasingly, Luke argues, teachers implementing and dependent upon state-approved curricula display what he calls ‘commodity fetishism’. He argues for greatly changed forms of education and teacher education to meet the demands of contemporary times.
- 16.
On curriculum development generally, but also on the distinction between the planned curriculum and the curriculum actually realised in practice , see Stenhouse’s (1975) classic book Introduction to curriculum research and development.
- 17.
Lundgren (1983), for example, describes major periods of educational thought and practice in terms of changing curriculum codes.
- 18.
See, for example, McNeil (2006) Contemporary curriculum : In thought and action (6th ed.).
- 19.
One useful source giving an introduction to ideas about education in the twentieth century is Connell’s (1980) History of education in the twentieth century world. New York: Teachers College Press. History of education journals include History of Education, or for Australia and New Zealand, the History of Education Review.
- 20.
A place to start looking for information in international and comparative education is the journal Comparative Education Review.
- 21.
A dialectical relationship is a relationship of mutual constitution, like the relationship between the chicken and the egg, in which each is necessary in the lifecycle of poultry, or like the relationship between war and peace, in which war is always a stage in the process of peace breaking out, and peace is a stage in the process of war breaking out.
- 22.
Many studies have been made of the emergence of school subjects; see, for example, Goodson (1985, 1993) and Goodson and Ball (1984). Specific works on computer education can be accessed through journals like Computers and Education (Homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journalaudience.cws_home/347/description) or the Australian Journal of Educational Technology (Homepage: http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet.html).
- 23.
The debate among these authors demonstrates how theories are contested —like ideas about what constitutes an education.
- 24.
- 25.
In Chap. 4, we will speak not of ‘a theory of action’, but ‘a practice theory’ or ‘a theory of practice ’.
- 26.
The 2017 Report on the achievements of the Closing the Gap initiative can be found at http://closingthegap.pmc.gov.au/.
- 27.
- 28.
See Grant (2016).
- 29.
- 30.
An example of an analysis of an educational change program using the framework of contestation and institutionalisation is Rizvi and Kemmis (1987). Dilemmas of reform .
- 31.
The perspective offered in this paper differs significantly from the views presented in Benjamin Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of educational objectives, but the three kinds of knowledge distinguished here are similar to Bloom’s cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains.
- 32.
- 33.
There are whole research literatures on the location and formation of individuals in relation to culture , language and discourses and symbol systems through which people make meaning (e.g. whole research literatures in anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics, semiotics and sociology). Similarly, there are whole research literatures on the location and formation of individuals in relation to physical and natural environments (in psychology and social geography, for example) and in relation to economic activities of production and consumption (e.g. in political economy and economics). There are also whole research literatures about the location and formation of individuals in relation to social groups, belonging and a sense of solidarity with others, and politically significant identifications like those shaped by gender or social class membership (e.g. sociology, political theory and gender studies). Moreover, there are very different kinds of theoretical approaches in each of these fields, with quite different views about the extent to which individuals are made by (or determined by) their circumstances versus makers of (or active agents in making) their circumstances.
The view taken here is a dialectical view—that is, the view that people are both made by and makers of their circumstances—of the kind famously put by Karl Marx in the (1845/1938) third of his Theses on Feuerbach (quoted in Chap. 1). Later (1852, 1999), Marx wrote in Chap. 1 of The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte: “Men make their own history , but they do not make it as they please; they do not make it under self-selected circumstances, but under circumstances existing already, given and transmitted from the past. The tradition of all dead generations weighs like a nightmare on the brains of the living”. As Matthews (1980, p. 86) put it: ‘Marx offered a new version of materialism. Specifically, it was a historical materialism; a materialism which saw practice or conscious human activity as mediating between mind and matter; between subject and object. It was something which by its meditation altered both society and nature. Consciousness arises out of and is shaped by practice , and in turn is judged in and by practice ’.
- 34.
Examples are the rise of mass education to meet the needs of the newly industrialised West in the nineteenth century as well as to meet the needs of the new democratic nations of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; and the rise of educational computing in relation to the emergence of the ‘information age’. Hamilton’s (1989) Towards a theory of schooling shows how the multi-teacher, multi-classroom school so common today emerged, as an ‘answer’ to the needs of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century societies. You might browse the pages of some History of Education journals and books to find other examples—like the history of the workers’ education and adult education movements; the rise and fall of educational television in schools; the ways physical education emerged in relation to needs for fit young men to serve in the armed forces and the shift towards ‘health-promoting schools’; changes in the ways cooking and housekeeping were taught in the education of girls in different eras; and the evolution and transformation of school subjects like geography, history , biology and mathematics. In recent times, you may also want to explore changes in the conceptualisation of ‘literacy’ and ‘literacies’ in relation to changes in the way children and young people encounter information (e.g. in the eras of television and the Internet).
- 35.
New developments in education routinely produce protests from members of older generations who believe that things should stay the way they were ‘in our time’. Sometimes, this is the response of parent or grandparent generations who no longer recognise their own school experience in the school experiences of their children or grandchildren. But sometimes there are also howls of protest from people who believe that new developments threaten the interests of groups who have attained or maintained privilege from the kind of education they received. Responses from some groups of men to the changes brought about by innovators in the education of women and girls were (or are) of this conservative kind. You might want to explore the education literature and the popular press to find some examples of these different kinds of responses.
- 36.
Thus, for example, education and schooling respond to directions favoured by political groups and parties (e.g. by policies responding to the needs of disadvantaged students and families, or changing policies on support for private education) and also to social movements in the wider society (especially in response to social class and class inequalities in the first half of the twentieth century, the needs of migrants in Australia in the middle of the twentieth century, the needs of women and girls and of Indigenous students in the last thirty years of the twentieth century and the needs of boys in the late 1990s and the beginning of the twenty-first century).
- 37.
Different theorists understand ‘social context’ in different ways. For some ecological psychologists, social contexts are the concentric aggregations of people around an individual , from family and friends to social groups to the larger, more formal structures of government and industry; for structural–functionalist sociologists, social context refers to social structures and functions in a given society; for other interpretive and symbolic interactionist sociologists, as well as to some cultural theorists, social context refers crucially to the structures and media through which people make meaning of their lives; for critical social theorists, social context refers especially to socio-political structures and circumstances, especially ones which produce injustice for particular groups. An introduction these and other different theoretical perspectives on social context can be found in such texts as Allen (2004), Bessant and Watts (2001) and Meadmore et al. (1999).
- 38.
For different kinds of studies of educational reform showing the nature and processes of contestation between different kinds of groups and interests in the struggle for the school curriculum , see Ball (1994), Barcan (1998), Burbules and Torres (2000), Carr and Hartnett (1996), Gough (1998), Lingard et al. (1993), Lingard and Porter (1997), Taylor et al. (1997) and Tyack and Cuban (1995). Examples like these suggest what is at stake in educational reform and how every reform program serves the interests of particular groups, often at the expense of other groups.
- 39.
For example, Goodson (1993) writes about 1970s contests between subjects and ways of thinking that led to the formation of environmental education.
- 40.
Institutionalisation is the process by which an innovation becomes accepted as an orthodoxy and takes a more or less stable form. In some cases, an innovation becomes accepted as ‘official’, gaining formal approval from managers or authorities, and an accepted part of an organisation or its practices . Rizvi and Kemmis (1987) describe the processes of contestation and institutionalisation by which Participation and Equity Program (PEP) initiatives took shape and became accepted in Victorian schools in the mid-1980s.
- 41.
Some change is abrupt and significant—chaos theory and complexity theory have offered ways of understanding change in these terms.
Change is often said to be either evolutionary or revolutionary. Karl Marx was perhaps the greatest theorist of revolutionary change. But some Marxian theorists, like the French theorist Louis Althusser also wanted to account for how social systems remained the same—using the key notion of ideology. In an essay ‘Ideology and ideological state apparatuses’ in his text Lenin and philosophy and other essays, Althusser (1971), gave a clear exposition of the nature and role of ideology and ideological state apparatuses (ISAs) in securing reproduction of the social relations of production in societies, without the explicit need for coercion. He distinguishes ISAs from the operation of the Repressive State Apparatus. He also discusses the relationship between the economic base and cultural superstructure that was an important feature of Marxian theory. Among the important contributions of this classic paper were his ideas that ideology is transmitted in practices (not just as ideas ) and the notion that ideology ‘interpellates’ the individual (‘hailing’ or naming the person as a subject). Available at http://www.marx2mao.com/Other/LPOE70ii.html#s5.
- 42.
See, for example, Giroux (1983).
- 43.
Agency is the capacity of people to act with commitment and intention, perhaps on their own behalf and in their own interests, but also on others’ behalf, and in others’ interests. For a classical account of the concept of agency , see Giddens (1979).
- 44.
For an initial view of the analysis of social movements, see Touraine (1981).
- 45.
See Kemmis et al. (2004).
- 46.
Darling-Hammond (1998) outlines the benefits of teacher learning in pre-service and in-service education settings for student learning . Her article can be accessed at: http://www.ascd.org/ed_topics/el199802_darlinghammond.html.
- 47.
- 48.
See, for example, Carr and Kemmis (1986). On the contemporary politics of educational research in relation to the interests of the state, see, for example, Lingard and Blackmore (1997). There is a growing literature on the ethics and politics of educational research and evaluation , including an emerging literature on the nature and problems of ‘evidence-based practice ’ research in education.
- 49.
There is a critical literature of evaluation locating it in relation to wider cultural, economic and political questions. See, for example, MacDonald (1976).
- 50.
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Kemmis, S., Edwards-Groves, C. (2018). The Politics of Education: Reproduction and Transformation. In: Understanding Education. Springer Texts in Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6433-3_3
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