Year in Review 2021

Sexton, James Patrick; Beurret, Florent; O’Regan, Nathan

doi:10.1007/978-94-6265-559-1_8

James Patrick Sexton⁹,
Florent Beurret¹⁰ &
Nathan O’Regan¹¹

Part of the book series: Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law ((YIHL))

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Abstract

The Year in Review seeks to provide readers with an overview of developments with significant relevance to international humanitarian law (IHL)/the law of armed conflict (LOAC) that took place during 2021. More specifically, the Year in Review assesses: (i) potential situations of armed conflict, including a classification of them as international or non-international armed conflicts, belligerent occupation, or situations not meeting the relevant legal requirements for the application of IHL; (ii) a summary of relevant proceedings and developments relating to the prosecution of serious violations of IHL—war crimes—at international, hybrid, and domestic courts and tribunals; and, (iii) an overview of developments in the IHL-related fields of arms control and disarmament.

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Notes

1.
For the Year in Review 2020, see Klonowska and Dubey 2022.
2.
The term ‘IHL’ will be used throughout this chapter; the term ‘law of armed conflict’ is considered synonymous to IHL.
3.
See ICRC 2017.
4.
Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 75 UNTS 31 (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) (GCI); Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 75 UNTS 85 (ibid.) (GCII); Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 75 UNTS 135 (ibid.) (GCIII); Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 75 UNTS 287 (ibid.) (GCIV), Article 2.
5.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadić, Appeals Chamber, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, 2 October 1995, IT-94-1-AR72, (Tadić 1995) para 70; see also Akande and Saul 2020, pp 34–35.
6.
ICRC 2020, para 293.
7.
See Hague Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land (adopted 18 October 1907, entered into force 26 January 1910) U.S.T.S. 539, 2 A.J.I.L. Supp. 90, Annex to the Convention, Article 42. See also GCI-IV, above n 4, Article 2.
8.
Ibid.
9.
GCI-IV, above n 4, Article 2.
10.
Tadić 1995, above n 5, para 70.
11.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Ramush Haradinaj and others, Trial Chamber, Judgement, 3 April 2008, IT-04-84-T, para 60.
12.
Tadić 1995, above n 5, para 70.
13.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Ljube Boškoski and Johan Tarčulovski, Trial Chamber, Judgement, 10 July 2008, IT-04-82-T, para 177.
14.
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 609 (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 7 December 1978), Article 1(1).
15.
Vité 2009, pp 92–93.
16.
Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 159–161.
17.
Followed up with a peace agreement. See Maizland L (2020) U.S.-Taliban Peace Deal: What to Know. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-taliban-peace-deal-agreement-afghanistan-war. Accessed 20 May 2022.
18.
The Guardian (2021) Timeline: the Taliban’s sweeping offensive in Afghanistan. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/16/timeline-the-talibans-sweeping-offensive-in-afghanistan. Accessed 29 March 2022.
19.
Ibid.
20.
Ahmed S (2021) He is the Last American Soldier to Leave Afghanistan. https://www.npr.org/2021/08/30/1032683828/the-last-american-soldier-to-leave-afghanistan?t=1646910349642. Accessed 29 March 2022.
21.
Sayed A (2021) Analysis: How Are the Taliban Organized? https://www.voanews.com/a/us-afghanistan-troop-withdrawal_analysis-how-are-taliban-organized/6219266.html. Accessed 10 June 2022.
22.
See UNAMA 2021.
23.
US CENTCOM 2021.
24.
See Saul 2021.
25.
Garamone J (2021) Taliban Take Kabul, U.S. Troops Arrive to Facilitate Departures. https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/2732900/taliban-take-kabul-us-troops-arrive-to-facilitate-departures/. Accessed 10 June 2022.
26.
Center for Strategic & International Studies 2018.
27.
Mir 2021.
28.
Ibid.
29.
Gardner F (2021) Afghanistan: Who are Islamic State Khorasan Province militants? https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58333533. Accessed 29 March 2022.
30.
Seldin J (2022) Pentagon: Lone Bomber Behind August 2021 Attack on Kabul Airport. https://www.voanews.com/a/pentagon-lone-bomber-behind-august-2021-attack-on-kabul-airport-/6427383.html. Accessed 29 April 2022.
31.
Al Jazeera (2021) Afghanistan: Dozens killed in suicide bombing at Kunduz mosque. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/8/blast-hits-a-mosque-in-afghanistans-kunduz-during-friday-prayers. Accessed 29 March 2022.
32.
Gardner F (2021) above n 29.
33.
UNSC 2021b, p 17.
34.
Jadoon et al. 2022, pp 41–42.
35.
See Gaggiolo and Kilibarda 2022, p 203.
36.
Pakistan Observer (2021) Taliban send hundreds of fighters to eastern Afghanistan to wage war against Islamic State. https://pakobserver.net/taliban-send-hundreds-of-fighters-to-eastern-afghanistan-to-wage-war-against-islamic-state/. Accessed 8 May 2022.
37.
Al Jazeera (2021) Drone Attack killed 10 civilians in Kabul, US acknowledges. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/17/drone-strike-killed-10-civilians-in-kabul-us-acknowledges. Accessed 29 April 2022.
38.
For a summary of the debate, see D’Cunha 2018.
39.
Milanovic 2021.
40.
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (2021) Iranian Border Guards Clash with Taliban in ‘Misunderstanding’. https://www.rferl.org/a/iranian-border-guards-taliban-clash/31589279.html. Accessed 29 March 2022.
41.
Nawabi S (2021) Taliban: Several Iranian guards dead after Minroz border clashes. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1979871/world. Accessed 29 March 2022.
42.
Ibid.
43.
ICRC 2020, para 270.
44.
Al Jazeera (2022) Burkina Faso: Military coup prompts fear of further instability. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/27/burkina-faso-military-coup-prompts-fears-of-further-instability. Accessed 21 April 2022; see also Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 163–165.
45.
Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect 2022.
46.
Mbaye and Signé 2022.
47.
Ndiaga T (2021) Burkina Faso protest against militant violence turns violent. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/burkina-faso-police-fire-tear-gas-protest-against-militant-violence-2021-11-27/. Accessed 21 April 2022.
48.
Deutsche Welle (2021) Burkina Faso: French soldiers injure protestors. https://www.dw.com/en/burkina-faso-french-soldiers-injure-protesters/a-59892337. Accessed 19 May 2022.
49.
Al Jazeera (2021) ‘Kill them all, don’t spare anyone’: A massacre in Burkina Faso. https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2021/10/24/kill-them-all-dont-spare-anyone-a-massacre-in-burkina-faso. Accessed 21 April 2022.
50.
Mednick S (2021) Jihadis expand control to new Burkina Faso fronts. https://apnews.com/article/africa-religion-government-and-politics-burkina-faso-ab3cc33ca48741adc0d5b33004604b8f. Accessed 21 April 2022.
51.
Human Rights Watch 2022a.
52.
Al Jazeera (2021) Burkina Faso: Death toll in security post attack jumps to 53. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/17/burkina-faso-death-toll-security-post-attack-jumps-to-53. Accessed 21 April 2022.
53.
Human Rights Watch 2022a.
54.
In line with the approach of compartmentalising armed conflicts, see Sect. 8.1.
55.
Nsaibia and Duhamel 2021; Kleinfeld 2020.
56.
Nsaibia and Duhamel 2021.
57.
Thompson 2021b.
58.
International Crisis Group 2021b.
59.
An analysis shared by other commentators in previous years. See Diakonia International Humanitarian Law Centre 2019, p 9; see also Thompson 2021b.
60.
Thompson 2021b.
61.
Thompson 2021a.
62.
Beevor and Berger 2020; Thompson 2021a.
63.
Thompson 2021a.
64.
Ibid.
65.
Ibid.
66.
RULAC 2021a.
67.
Ibid.
68.
Al Jazeera (2021) French army convoy blocked by Burkinabe protestors reaches Niger. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/26/french-army-convoy-blocked-by-burkinabe-protesters-reaches-niger. Accessed 23 May 2022.
69.
See Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 167–168.
70.
Center for Preventive Action 2022b; Human Rights Watch (2013) Central African Republic: Rampant Abuses After Coup. https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/05/10/central-african-republic-rampant-abuses-after-coup. Accessed 21 April 2022.
71.
France24 (2019) Central African Republic inks peace deal with armed groups. https://www.france24.com/en/20190205-central-african-republic-peace-deal-armed-groups-conflict. Accessed 21 April 2022.
72.
Human Rights Watch 2021c.
73.
Ibid.
74.
UN News (2021) UN condemns back-to-back attacks in Central African Republic. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1081282. Accessed 21 April 2022.
75.
Center for Civilians in Conflict 2021; Human Rights Watch 2022b.
76.
Ashimwe E (2021) Rwanda Deploys More Troops to Central African Republic. https://allafrica.com/stories/202108040261.html. Accessed 19 May 2022.
77.
Political Geography Now 2021; Corbeaunews Centrafrique (2021) RCA : la sous-préfecture de Aba (nord-ouest) reprise par l’armée nationale et ses alliés. https://corbeaunews-centrafrique.org/rca-la-sous-prefecture-de-aba-nord-ouest-reprise-par-larmee-nationale-et-ses-allies/. Accessed 21 April 2022; Corbeaunews Centrafrique (2021) RCA : après la ville de Kaga-Bandoro, c’est le tour de Batangafo d’être reprise par l’armée nationale. https://corbeaunews-centrafrique.org/rca-apres-la-ville-de-kaga-bandoro-cest-le-tour-de-batangafo-detre-reprise-par-larmee-nationale/. Accessed 21 April 2022; Corbeaunews Centrafrique (2021) RCA : la ville de Kabo, dans l’Ouham-Fafa, est reprise par l’armée nationale et ses alliés. https://corbeaunews-centrafrique.org/rca-la-ville-de-kabo-dans-louham-fafa-est-reprise-par-larmee-nationale-et-ses-allies/. Accessed 21 April 2022; Corbeaunews Centrafrique (2021) RCA : la ville de Markounda, dans l’Ouham, est reprise par l’armée nationale et ses alliés. https://corbeaunews-centrafrique.org/rca-la-ville-de-markounda-dans-louham-est-reprise-par-larmee-nationale-et-ses-allies/. Accessed 21 April 2022; Corbeaunews Centrafrique (2021) RCA : reprise de la ville de Kémbé, mais aussi de Dimbi, de Poumbolo et de Gambo par les forces loyalistes. https://corbeaunews-centrafrique.org/rca-reprise-de-la-ville-de-kembe-mais-aussi-de-dimbi-de-poumbolo-et-de-gambo-par-les-forces-loyalistes/. Accessed 21 April 2022.
78.
UN News (2021) Central African Republic: 200,000 displaced in less than two months. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1083332. Accessed 21 April 2022.
79.
Reliefweb (2021) Security Council Increases Size of Central African Republic Stabilization Mission, Adopting Resolution 2566 (2021) by 14 Votes in Favour, with 1 Abstention. https://reliefweb.int/report/central-african-republic/security-council-increases-size-central-african-republic. Accessed 21 April 2022.
80.
Human Rights Watch 2022b; Kum P (2021) Major group quits Central African Republic rebel bloc. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/major-group-quits-central-african-republic-rebel-bloc/2199821. Accessed 22 April 2022.
81.
Al Jazeera (2021) UN withdraws Gabon peacekeepers from CAR over sex abuse claims. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/15/un-withdraws-gabon-peacekeepers-from-car-over-sex-abuse-claims. Accessed 21 April 2022.
82.
Al Jazeera (2021) CAR declares unilateral ceasefire in fight with armed groups. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/15/central-african-republic-declares-unilateral-ceasefire-with-rebels. Accessed 21 April 2022.
83.
UN News (2021) Central African Republic: Rights expert welcomes transfer of war crimes suspect to ICC. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1083112. Accessed 21 April 2022.
84.
Deutsche Welle (2021) UN concerned over Russian mercenaries in CAR. https://www.dw.com/en/un-concerned-over-russian-mercenaries-in-car/a-57066877. Accessed 21 April 2022.
85.
See Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 168–170.
86.
RULAC 2020.
87.
Ibid.
88.
Ibid.
89.
Insight Crime 2022.
90.
Insight Crime 2021.
91.
International Crisis Group 2021a.
92.
Ibid.
93.
ICRC 2022b.
94.
Human Rights Watch 2022c.
95.
OCHA 2021a.
96.
Al Jazeera (2022) Forced displacement in Colombia more than doubled in 2021: Report. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/16/forced-displacement-in-colombia-more-than-doubled-in-2021-report. Accessed 28 April 2022.
97.
ICRC 2022b.
98.
International Crisis Group 2021a.
99.
Grattan S (2021) Colombia’s ELN rebels warn of ‘reprisals’ after commander killed. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/1/colombia-eln-rebels-warn-of-reprisals-after-commander-killed. Accessed 19 May 2022.
100.
International Crisis Group 2021a.
101.
Colombia Reports 2021.
102.
International Crisis Group 2021a.
103.
Agencia EFE (2017) Disidencia de las FARC tienen unos 700 integrantes. https://www.efe.com/efe/america/politica/disidencias-de-las-farc-tienen-unos-700-integrantes/20000035-3425113. Accessed 28 April 2022.
104.
Insight Crime (2021) Colombia Decides EPL is No Longer Major Threat. https://insightcrime.org/noticias/colombia-decides-epl-no-longer-major-threat/. Accessed 28 April 2022.
105.
See Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 172–174.
106.
Africa Center 2021.
107.
International Crisis Group 2020.
108.
Africa Center 2021.
109.
Al Jazeera (2021) Ethiopia PM admits Eritrean soldiers entered Tigray region. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/23/ethiopia-pm-abiy-ahmed-says-atrocities-committed-in-tigray. Accessed 29 March 2022.
110.
Deutsche Welle (2021) Tension in Ethiopia as Tigrayan forces advance. https://www.dw.com/en/tension-in-ethiopia-as-tigrayan-forces-advance/a-59747997. Accessed 3 May 2022.
111.
Anna 2021.
112.
Feleke B (2021) Ethiopia’s Nobel Peace Prize-winning leader says he’ll lead troops on front lines against rebels. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211204-ethiopia-s-war-in-uncertain-phase-after-abiy-s-advance. Accessed 29 March 2022; France24 (2021) Ethiopia’s war in uncertain phase after Abiy’s advance. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211204-ethiopia-s-war-in-uncertain-phase-after-abiy-s-advance. Accessed 29 March 2022.
113.
Felbab-Brown 2022.
114.
International Crisis Group 2020.
115.
Burgess A (2021) A year of bloodshed, famine and civilian torture. Why is Ethiopia on the brink of all-out civil war? https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-11-14/ethiopia-conflict-civil-war-tigray-addis-ababa/100612326. Accessed 29 March 2022.
116.
Zimmermann et al. 1987, para 4463.
117.
Al Jazeera (2021) Eritrea confirms its troops are fighting in Ethiopia’s Tigray. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/17/eritrea-confirms-its-troops-are-fighting-ethiopias-tigray. Accessed 29 March 2022.
118.
Mersie et al. 2021.
119.
Human Rights Watch 2022d.
120.
Ethiopian Human Rights Commission and OHCHR 2021; Sabbagh D (2021) Possible war crimes on all sides in Ethiopian conflict, says report. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/03/possible-war-crimes-on-all-sides-in-ethiopian-conflict-report-tigray. Accessed 2 May 2022.
121.
Human Rights Watch 2021a.
122.
Rumley and Zilber 2021.
123.
Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 174–175.
124.
Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (Oslo II). https://peacemaker.un.org/israelopt-osloII95. Accessed 29 April 2022.
125.
Al Jazeera (2021) Mapping Israeli occupation. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/5/18/mapping-israeli-occupation-gaza-palestine. Accessed 14 April 2022.
126.
BBC News (2021) Israel advances plans for 3,000 new homes in West Bank settlements. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-59062909. Accessed 3 May 2022.
127.
UNGA (2012) Resolution 67/19 on the Status of Palestine in the United Nations A/Res/67/19.
128.
Ferraro 2012, pp 157–158.
129.
See, among other provisions, GC IV, above n 4, Articles 47-78. See also ICJ, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, 9 July 2004, ICJ Rep 136, paras 123–129.
130.
Council on Foreign Relations 2022b.
131.
Ibid.
132.
Ibid.
133.
Deutsche Welle (2021) Israel’s Iron Dome proves successful against Gaza rockets. https://www.dw.com/en/israels-iron-dome-proves-successful-against-gaza-rockets/a-57513596. Accessed 14 April 2022.
134.
Bachelet 2021.
135.
ICRC 2021b.
136.
BBC News (2021) Hamas: the Palestinian militant group that rules Gaza. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13331522. Accessed 3 May 2022.
137.
Council on Foreign Relations 2021.
138.
Federman J and Akram F (2021) Israel, Hamas agree to cease-fire to end bloody 11-day war. https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinian-cease-fire-hamas-caac81bc36fe9be67ac2f7c27000c74b. Accessed 14 April 2022.
139.
Lazaroff T (2021) UN: There is no ‘safe place’ in Gaza, 72,000 people displaced. https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/un-there-is-no-safe-place-in-gaza-72000-people-displaced-668489. Accessed 3 May 2022.
140.
See Human Rights Watch (2021) Palestinian Rockets in May Killed Civilians in Israel, Gaza. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/08/12/palestinian-rockets-may-killed-civilians-israel-gaza. Accessed 22 April 2022; Human Rights Watch (2021) Gaza: Israel’s May Airstrikes on High-Rises. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/08/23/gaza-israels-may-airstrikes-high-rises. Accessed 22 April 2022.
141.
E.g., see Cohen and Shany 2021; Haque 2021.
142.
Haque 2021.
143.
Cohen and Shany 2021.
144.
See ICRC undated; Hague Convention (IV), above n 7, Article 26; Al Jazeera (2021) ‘Give us 10 minutes’: How Israel bombed Gaza media tower. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/5/15/give-us-10-minutes-how-israel-bombed-gaza-media-tower. Accessed 22 April 2022.
145.
Human Rights Watch (2021) above n 140.
146.
France24 (2021) Israeli military attacks two Hamas sites in Gaza after fire balloons. https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20210829-israeli-military-attacks-two-hamas-sites-in-gaza-after-fire-balloons. Accessed 5 April 2022.
147.
Al Jazeera (2021) Hezbollah launches rocket fire in response to Israeli air raids. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/6/hezbollah-says-fired-rockets-into-israel-in-response-to-air-raids. Accessed 14 April 2022.
148.
On the question of whether Hezbollah can be considered to represent Lebanon and thereby bring IAC law into play, see Bloom 2008, p 61.
149.
BBC News (2021) Syria blames Israel for rare air strike on main port of Latakia. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-59561148. Accessed 7 May 2022.
150.
Khoury J and Reuters (2021) Iranian Munitions Were Israel’s Target in Syria Port Strike, Sources Say. https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/iranian-munitions-were-israel-s-target-in-syria-port-strike-sources-say-1.10499629. Accessed 25 May 2022.
151.
See Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 176–177.
152.
Center for Preventive Action 2022a.
153.
OCHA 2021b; ICRC 2021a.
154.
OCHA 2021b.
155.
Human Rights Watch 2022e.
156.
UN News (2021) Libya: UN lauds mercenary withdrawal plan on ‘path towards peace and democracy’. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1102642. Accessed 10 May 2022.
157.
Human Rights Watch 2022e.
158.
Al Jazeera (2022) Libya’s parliament to appoint new PM amid rise in tensions. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/8/libya-parliament-to-appoint-new-pm-amid-rise-in-tensions. Accessed 9 May 2022.
159.
International Crisis Group 2022a.
160.
Mezran 2021.
161.
International Crisis Group 2022a.
162.
Tyson 2021.
163.
Ibid.
164.
Thompson 2021a, b.
165.
France24 (2021) Emmanuel Macron annonce la fin de l’opération Barkhane au Sahel. https://www.france24.com/fr/afrique/20210610-op%C3%A9ration-barkhane-emmanuel-macron-va-annoncer-une-restructuration-des-troupes. Accessed 28 April 2022.
166.
Established pursuant to UNSC Resolution 2100 (2013), UN Doc S/RES/2100(2013).
167.
UNSC Resolution 2164 (2014), UN Doc S/Res/2164(2014), para 13.
168.
Thompson et al. 2022.
169.
Human Rights Watch 2022f.
170.
Ibid.
171.
Deutsche Welle (2021) Mali says President Assimi Goita survives assassination attempt. https://www.dw.com/en/mali-says-president-assimi-goita-survives-assassination-attempt/a-58376438. Accessed 3 May 2022.
172.
Cham K (2021) Mali: Over 140 officials named in Ecowas sanctions list. https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/rest-of-africa/mali-over-140-officials-named-in-ecowas-sanctions-list-3624676. Accessed 2 May 2022.
173.
HumAngle Media (2021) JNIM: Coalition of Terrorists Intensifying Attacks in The Sahel. https://humanglemedia.com/jnim-coalition-of-terrorists-intensifying-attacks-in-the-sahel/. Accessed 20 May 2022.
174.
E.g., Reuters (2021) Five gendarmes killed in attack on mining convoy in Mali - army. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/five-gendarmes-killed-attack-mining-convoy-mali-army-2021-09-29/. Accessed 20 May 2022.
175.
International Crisis Group 2021b.
176.
Rédaction Africanews (2021) French Barkhane troops kill senior jihadist fighter in Mali. https://www.africanews.com/2021/10/21/french-barkhane-troops-kill-senior-jihadist-fighter-in-mali//. Accessed 10 June 2022.
177.
Noonan 1984.
178.
See Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 178–179.
179.
International Crisis Group 2021c, p 1.
180.
Ibid.
181.
Ibid., pp 17–21.
182.
UNHCR (2021) Nearly 30,000 people displaced by March attacks in northern Mozambique. https://www.unhcr.org/news/briefing/2021/4/608bb1be4/nearly-30000-people-displaced-march-attacks-northern-mozambique.html. Accessed 29 March 2022.
183.
Lister 2021, p 19.
184.
De Cherisey E (2021) Mozambique’s bush war from the sky. https://www.timesaerospace.aero/features/defence/mozambiques-bush-war-from-the-sky. Accessed 3 May 2022.
185.
International Crisis Group 2022b.
186.
Eick M (2021) Mozambique: humanitarian crisis grows in Cabo Delgado as conflict continues. https://reliefweb.int/report/mozambique/mozambique-humanitarian-crisis-grows-cabo-delgado-conflict-continues#:~:text=Almost%20800%2C000%20people%20have%20been,the%20province's%20capital%20of%20Pemba. Accessed 29 March 2022.
187.
On DPH, see Melzer 2009 and Schmitt 2010; see also Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts 1125 UNTS 3 (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 7 December 1978) (API), Article 47(1).
188.
E.g., API Article 47; although this is only applicable in IACs.
189.
Human Rights Watch (2021) Mozambique: ISIS-linked Group Using Child Soldiers. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/09/29/mozambique-isis-linked-group-using-child-soldiers. Accessed 3 May 2022.
190.
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict, 2173 UNTS 222 (opened for signature 25 May 2000, entered into force 12 February 2002), Article 4(1).
191.
Human Rights Watch 2022g.
192.
Amnesty International 2021a.
193.
Reuters (2021) South African company to investigate after Amnesty says it shot at civilians in Mozambique. https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-mozambique-insurgency-idUSKCN2AU0P3. Accessed 4 May 2022.
194.
Zitamar News (2021) Cabo Ligado Analysis: DAG’s internal investigation into human rights allegations. https://zitamar.com/cabo-ligado-analysis-dag-internal-investigation-into-human-rights-allegations/. Accessed 5 May 2022.
195.
See Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 179–181.
196.
BBC News (2021) Myanmar coup: Military take control of the country, as leader Aung San Suu Kyi detained. https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-55892986. Accessed 12 April 2022.
197.
Ibid.
198.
Amnesty International 2021e.
199.
Al Jazeera (2021) Myanmar army helicopter attacks ‘force thousands to flee’. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/1/myanmar-army-helicopter-attacks-force-thousands-to-flee. Accessed 22 April 2022.
200.
Insecurity Insight 2021.
201.
Picard 2022.
202.
International Crisis Group 2022c.
203.
Ong 2021.
204.
See Human Rights Watch (2021) Myanmar: Another Wave of Atrocity Crimes in Chin State: UN Security Council Must Act Now to End Juntas’ Campaign of Terror. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/04/myanmar-another-wave-atrocity-crimes-chin-state. Accessed 28 April 2022.
205.
Picard 2022.
206.
Selth 2022.
207.
Ibid.
208.
Myanmar Now (2021) NUG establishes ‘chain of command’ in fight against regime. https://www.myanmar-now.org/en/news/nug-establishes-chain-of-command-in-fight-against-regime. Accessed 7 May 2022.
209.
E.g., Al Jazeera (2021) above n 199.
210.
The Irrawaddy (2021). Myanmar Shadow Govt Claims 580 Junta Troops Killed Last Month. https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-shadow-govt-claims-580-junta-troops-killed-last-month.html. Accessed 28 April 2022.
211.
Nikolic et al. 2020.
212.
Also concluded in UN Human Rights Council 2022, pp 4–5.
213.
The Irrawaddy (2021) Fighting Continues Between KIA, Tatmadaw in Northern Myanmar. https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/fighting-continues-kia-tatmadaw-northern-myanmar.html. Accessed 7 May 2022.
214.
Ibid.
215.
UN Human Rights Council 2022, pp 4–5.
216.
Human Rights Watch (2021) Niger: Surging Atrocities by Armed Islamist Groups. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/08/11/niger-surging-atrocities-armed-islamist-groups. Accessed 3 May 2022.
217.
Deutsche Welle (2021) Niger: France ‘kills’ suspect in murders of aid workers. https://www.dw.com/en/niger-france-kills-suspect-in-murders-of-aid-workers/a-60206381. Accessed 13 June 2022.
218.
Ibid.
219.
Aksar et al. 2021.
220.
Amnesty International 2021c.
221.
Al Jazeera (2021) Niger declares two days of mourning after nearly 70 killed. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/4/dozens-dead-in-west-niger-village-attack-officials. Accessed 7 May 2022.
222.
The Guardian (2021) ‘Ferocious’ Niger battle leaves dozens of soldiers and militants dead. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/06/ferocious-niger-battle-leaves-dozens-of-soldiers-and-militants-dead. Accessed 7 May 2022.
223.
Deutsche Welle (2021) above n 217.
224.
Amnesty International 2021c.
225.
The Guardian (2021) Niger: two killed and 17 injured in clash with French military convoy. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/27/niger-two-killed-and-17-injured-in-clash-with-french-military-convoy. Accessed 13 June 2022.
226.
RULAC 2021b.
227.
BBC News (2020) South Sudan rivals Salva Kiir and Riek Machar strike unity deal. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-51562367. Accessed 6 May 2022.
228.
Ibid.
229.
Al Jazeera (2021) South Sudan at risk of ‘large scale conflict’: UN report. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/27/south-sudan-at-risk-of-large-scale-conflict-un-report. Accessed 6 May 2022; UNSC 2021a.
230.
UNSC 2021c.
231.
Ibid.
232.
Amnesty International 2021d.
233.
Al Jazeera (2021) South Sudan’s Vice President Machar deposed by party. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/4/south-sudans-vp-machar-deposed-by-party-military-wing. Accessed 16 May 2022.
234.
Dumo D (2021) Rival South Sudanese factions clash, two sides report dozens of soldiers killed. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/clashes-kill-least-30-south-sudanese-soldiers-says-vp-spokesman-2021-08-07/. Accessed 16 May 2022.
235.
Al Jazeera (2021) above n 233.
236.
UN News (2021) South Sudan plagued by violence and corruption, Human Rights Council hears. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/09/1100932. Accessed 6 May 2022.
237.
Human Rights Watch 2020.
238.
International Crisis Group 2021d.
239.
Amnesty International 2021d.
240.
Amnesty International 2021d.
241.
See Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 187–188.
242.
For instance, see Statement by the Delegation of Ukraine at the 988th FSC Plenary Meeting 2021.
243.
Ibid.
244.
SwissInfo (2021) OSCE says ceasefire agreement reached for eastern Ukraine. https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/osce-says-ceasefire-agreement-reached-for-eastern-ukraine/47212776. Accessed 7 May 2022.
245.
Peterson 2021.
246.
Reuters (2021) Russia moves warships to Black Sea for drills: Interfax. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-russia-defence-idUSKBN2BV14M. Accessed 7 May 2022.
247.
NATO (2021) Press conference with NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine, Dmytro Kuleba. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/opinions_188554.htm. Accessed 7 May 2022.
248.
See, for instance, Dinstein 2019, p 13.
249.
For instance, see Milanovic 2014, p 163.
250.
Tadić 1995, above n 5, para 70.
251.
See Klonowska and Dubey 2022, pp 189–191.
252.
Glenn 2015.
253.
Council on Foreign Relations 2022d.
254.
Human Rights Watch 2021d.
255.
Council on Foreign Relations 2022d.
256.
Far TS (2022) Biden Doubles Down on a Failed Yemen Policy. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/02/15/biden-doubles-down-failed-yemen-policy. Accessed 28 April 2022.
257.
Council on Foreign Relations 2022a.
258.
Ghobari M and El Yaakoubi A (2021) Yemen’s Houthis raise stakes in Marib ‘blood bath’, sources say. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-security/yemens-houthis-raise-stakes-in-marib-blood-bath-sources-say-idUSKBN2AM1ER. Accessed 28 April 2022.
259.
Council on Foreign Relations 2022c.
260.
Al Jazeera (2021) Saudi-led coalition bombs Sanaa after Houthi attacks. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/7/saudi-led-coalition-bombs-sanaa-in-retaliation-for-houthi-attacks. Accessed 26 May 2022.
261.
UNDP 2021.
262.
OCHA 2021c.
263.
Associated Press (2021) Officials in Yemen: Houthi Blockade Restricts Aid, Movement. https://www.voanews.com/a/officials-in-yemen-houthi-blockade-restricts-aid-movement/6274697.html. Accessed 28 April 2022; Human Rights Watch (2021) Yemen: Coalition Blockade Imperils Civilians. https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/12/07/yemen-coalition-blockade-imperils-civilians. Accessed 28 April 2022.
264.
Council on Foreign Relations 2022c.
265.
Tadić 1995, above n 5, para 70.
266.
ICRC 2020, para 278.
267.
Note, there is an exception for independence movements under API, Article 1(4), but that is arguably not applicable here.
268.
UNOHCHR 2021.
269.
Kirchgaessner S (2021) Saudis used ‘incentives and threats’ to shut down UN investigation in Yemen. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/01/saudi-arabia-yemen-un-human-rights-investigation-incentives-and-therats. Accessed 28 April 2022.
270.
Al Jazeera (2021) Who are Chad’s FACT rebels and what are their goals? https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/21/who-are-chads-fact-rebels-and-what-are-their-goals. Accessed 10 June 2022.
271.
See Center for Preventive Action 2022c.
272.
See Redaelli C (2021) La guerra contra las drogas: desafíos para el derecho internacional humanitario. https://www.unisabana.edu.co/programas/unidades-academicas/facultad-de-derecho-y-ciencias-politicas/anuariodih/articulos/articulos-segunda-edicion/la-guerra-contra-las-drogas-desafios-para-el-derecho-internacional-humanitario/. Accessed 11 May 2022.
273.
World Food Programme 2021.
274.
Human Rights Watch 2021e.
275.
Human Rights Watch 2021b.
276.
Africa News (2021) Senegalese army promises to resettle displaced people on reclaimed territory. https://www.africanews.com/2021/02/11/senegalese-army-promises-to-resettle-displaced-people-on-reclaimed-territory//. Accessed 11 May 2022.
277.
Human Rights Watch (2021) Sudan: New Wave of Attacks in Darfur. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/12/15/sudan-new-wave-attacks-darfur. Accessed 11 May 2022.
278.
See Tadić 1995, above n 5, para 94.
279.
ICC (2021) Mrs Fatou Bensouda finishes her mandate as ICC Prosecutor. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1597#:~:text=In%20the%20past%20week%2C%20a,today%2C%20on%2015%20June%202021. Accessed 10 March 2022.
280.
ICC (2021) Mr Karim Asad Ahmad Khan QC sworn in today as the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1598#:~:text=Today%2C%2016%20June%202021%2C%20Mr,in%20The%20Hague%2C%20The%20Netherlands. Accessed 10 March 2022.
281.
ICC (2022) Karim A.A. Khan QC. https://www.icc-cpi.int/about/otp/who-s-who/Pages/karim-khan.aspx. Accessed 10 March 2022.
282.
Ibid.
283.
Journalists for Justice 2021.
284.
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (as amended) 2187 UNTS 90 (signed 17 July 1998, entered into force 1 July 2002) (Rome Statute).
285.
Journalists for Justice 2021.
286.
The Office of the Prosecutor (2021) Situation in Colombia: Benchmarking Consultation. https://www.icc-cpi.int/itemsDocuments/20210615-COL-Benchmarking-Consultation-Report-eng.pdf. Accessed 19 April 2022.
287.
Ibid.
288.
ICC (2021) ICC Prosecutor, Mr Karim A. A. Khan QC, concludes the preliminary examination of the Situation in Colombia with a Cooperation Agreement with the Government charting the next stage in support of domestic efforts to advance transitional justice. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1623. Accessed 11 March 2022.
289.
Ibid.
290.
ICC (2015) The State of Palestine accedes to the Rome Statute. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1082_2. Accessed 14 March 2022.
291.
ICC (2015) The Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Fatou Bensouda, opens a preliminary examination of the situation in Palestine. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1083. Accessed 14 March 2022.
292.
Ibid.
293.
ICC (2012) ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I issues its decision on the Prosecutor’s request related to territorial jurisdiction over Palestine. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1566. Accessed 14 March 2022.
294.
ICC, Situation in the State of Palestine, Prosecution request pursuant to article 19(3) for a ruling on the Court’s territorial jurisdiction in Palestine, 22 January 2020, ICC-01/18.
295.
ICC, Situation in the State of Palestine, Decision on the Prosecution request pursuant to article 19(3) for a ruling on the Court’s territorial jurisdiction in Palestine, 5 February 2021, ICC-01/18, para 108.
296.
Ibid., para 121.
297.
UNGA 2012.
298.
ICC 2021.
299.
ICC 2014.
300.
ICC, Situation in the Central African Republic II, Public Redacted Version of ‘Warrant of Arrest for Mahamat Said Abdel Kani’, 7 January 2019, ICC-01/14-01/21-2-US-Exp’, 17 February 2021, ICC-01/14 (Said Abdel Kani 2019).
301.
ICC (2021) Situation in Central African Republic II: Mahamat Said Abdel Kani surrendered to the ICC for crimes against humanity and war crimes. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1559. Accessed 19 March 2022.
302.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Mahamat Said Abdel Kani, Decision on the confirmation of charges against Mahamat Said Abdel Kani, 9 December 2021, ICC-01/14-01/21 (Said Abdel Kani 2021).
303.
Ibid.
304.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Alfred Yekatom, Public Redacted Version of ‘Warrant of Arrest for Alfred Yekatom’, ICC-01/14-01/18-1-US-Exp, 11 November 2018, 17 November 2018, ICC-01/14-01/18 (Yekatom 2018).
305.
ICC, Situation in the Central African Republic II, Public Redacted Version of ‘Warrant of Arrest for Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona’, 13 December 2018, ICC-01/14-02/18 (Ngaïssona 2018).
306.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Alfred Yekatom, Decision on the joinder of the cases against Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona and other related matters, 20 February 2019, ICC-01/14-01/18 (Yekatom and Ngaïssona 2019).
307.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, Corrected version of ‘Decision on the confirmation of charges against Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona’, 14 May 2020, ICC-01/14-01/18 (Yekatom and Ngaïssona 2020).
308.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, Decision on the Prosecutor’s request for reconsideration or, in the alternative, leave to appeal the ‘Decision on the confirmation of charges against Alfred Yekatom and Patrice- Edouard Ngaïssona’, 11 March 2020, ICC-01/04-01/18 (Yekatom and Ngaïssona 2020).
309.
ICC (2021) Opening of the Yekatom and Ngaïssona trial postponed to 16 February 2021. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=ma259. Accessed 20 March 2022.
310.
ICC (2004) The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court opens its first investigation. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=the%20office%20of%20the%20prosecutor%20of%20the%20international%20criminal%20court%20opens%20its%20first%20investigation. Accessed 30 March 2022.
311.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Warrant of Arrest – Redacted Version, 7 March 2007, ICC-01/04-02/06 (Ntaganda 2007).
312.
Ibid.
313.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Decision on the Prosecutor’s Application under Article 58, 12 July 2012, ICC-01/04-02/06 (Ntaganda 2012).
314.
ICC (2012) Bosco Ntaganda in the ICC's custody. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr888. Accessed 30 March 2022.
315.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Decision Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute on the Charges of the Prosecutor Against Bosco Ntaganda, 9 June 2014, ICC-01/04-02/06 (Ntaganda 2014).
316.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Judgement, 8 July 2019, ICC-01/04-02/06 (Ntaganda 2019).
317.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Sentencing Judgement, 7 November 2019, ICC-01/04-02/06.
318.
ICC (2021) Ntaganda Case: ICC Appeals Chamber to deliver appeals judgement on 30 March 2021 - Practical information. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=MA263. Accessed 30 March 2022.
319.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Public redacted version of Judgement on the appeals of Mr Bosco Ntaganda and the Prosecutor against the decision of Trial Chamber VI of 8 July 2019 entitled ‘Judgement’, 30 March 2021, ICC-01/04-02/06 A A2 (Ntaganda 2021).
320.
ICC (2005) Security Council refers situation in Darfur to ICC Prosecutor. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=security%20council%20refers%20situation%20in%20darfur%20to%20icc%20prosecutor. Accessed 22 March 2022.
321.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Ahmad Muhammad Harun and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman, Public redacted version of Second warrant of arrest for Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (“Ali Kushayb”), 16 January 2018, ICC-02/05/05-01/07-7-Secret-Exp, 11 June 2020, ICC-02/05-01/07 (Ali Kushayb 2018).
322.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (“Ali Kushayb”), Prosecution’s submission of the Document Containing the Charges, 29 March 2021, ICC-02/05-01/20 (Ali Kushayb 2021).
323.
ICC (2020) Situation in Darfur (Sudan): Ali Kushayb is in ICC custody. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=PR1525. Accessed 23 March 2022.
324.
ICC (2021) ICC concludes confirmation of charges hearing in Abd-Al-Rahman case. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1593. Accessed 23 March 2022.
325.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Ali Muhamad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (‘Ali Kushayb’), Corrected version of “Decision on the confirmation of charges against Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (‘Ali Kushayb’), 9 July 2021, ICC-02/05-01/20-433”, 23 November 2021, ICC-02/05-01/20 (Ali Kushayb 2021).
326.
ICC (2021) Abd-Al-Rahman case: Trial to open on 5 April 2021. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1806. Accessed 24 March 2022.
327.
ICC, Situation in Uganda, Public redacted version – Warrant of Arrest for Dominic Ongwen, 8 July 2005, ICC-02/04 (Ongwen 2005).
328.
ICC (2015) Dominic Ongwen transferred to The Hague. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1084. Accessed 30 March 2022.
329.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Dominic Ongwen, Public redacted with public annex: List of participating victims, Decision on the confirmation of charges against Dominic Ongwen, 23 March 2016, ICC-02/04-01/15 (Ongwen 2016).
330.
Ibid.
331.
ICC (2016) Ongwen trial opens at International Criminal Court. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1262. Accessed 30 March 2022.
332.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Dominic Ongwen, Public Redacted: Trial Judgement, 4 February 2021, ICC-02/04-01/15 (Ongwen 2021).
333.
Ibid.
334.
ICC (2021) Dominic Ongwen sentenced to 25 years of imprisonment. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1590. Accessed 30 March 2022.
335.
Africa News (2021) Mixed reactions in Uganda over ex-child soldier Dominic Ongwen’s ICC sentencing. https://www.africanews.com/2021/05/07/mixed-reactions-in-uganda-over-ex-child-soldier-dominic-ongwen-s-icc-sentencing//. Accessed 19 April 2022.
336.
Kersten 2016.
337.
ICC, The Prosecutor v. Dominic Ongwen, Defence Notification of its Intent to Appeal the Trial Judgement, 21 May 2021, ICC-02/04-01/15 (Ongwen 2021).
338.
IRMCT (2021) Mechanism Mourns the Loss of Judge Gberdao Gustave Kam. https://www.irmct.org/en/news/21-02-18-mechanism-mourns-loss-judge-gberdao-gustave-kam. Accessed 5 April 2022.
339.
IRMCT (2021) Secretary-General appoints Judge Fatimata Sanou Touré of Burkina Faso to serve as Mechanism Judge. https://www.irmct.org/en/news/21-08-13-secretary-general-appoints-judge-fatimata-sanou-toure-burkina-faso-serve-mechanism. Accessed 5 April 2022.
340.
IRMCT (2021) Judge Theodor Meron steps down from Judicial Roster of the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. https://www.irmct.org/en/news/judge-theodor-meron-steps-down-judicial-roster-international-residual-mechanism-criminal. Accessed 5 April 2022.
341.
For instance, see Meron 2000.
342.
ICTY (2013) Trial Chamber Judgement in the Stanišić and Simatović case to be rendered on 30 May 2013. https://www.icty.org/en/sid/11299. Accessed 5 April 2022.
343.
Ibid.
344.
ICTY (2013) Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović acquitted of all charges. https://www.icty.org/en/sid/11329. Accessed 5 April 2022.
345.
Ibid.
346.
ICTY (2015) Appeals Chamber Orders Retrial of Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović. https://www.icty.org/en/press/appeals-chamber-orders-retrial-jovica-stani%C5%A1i%C4%87-and-franko-simatovi%C4%87. Accessed 5 April 2022.
347.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović, Judgement, 9 December 2015, IT-03-69-A (Stanišić and Simatović 2015).
348.
Ibid.
349.
IRMCT (2015) Initial appearance of Stanišić and Simatović before the Mechanism. https://www.irmct.org/en/news/initial-appearance-stani%C5%A1i%C4%87-and-simatovi%C4%87-mechanism. Accessed 5 April 2022.
350.
IRMCT (2021) Conclusion of closing arguments in Prosecutor v. Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović. https://www.irmct.org/en/news/21-04-23-conclusion-closing-arguments-prosecutor-v-jovica-stanisic-and-franko-simatovic. Accessed 5 April 2022.
351.
Ibid.
352.
IRMCT, The Prosecutor v. Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović, Judgement, 30 June 2021, MICT-15-96-T (Stanišić and Simatović 2021).
353.
Ibid.
354.
Ibid.
355.
IRMCT 2021.
356.
ICTY (1995) Milan Martic, Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic indicted along with 21 other accused. https://www.icty.org/en/sid/7237. Accessed 5 April 2022.
357.
ICTY (2011) Ratko Mladić in Tribunal’s Custody. https://www.icty.org/en/sid/10678. Accessed 5 April 2022.
358.
ICTY (2017) Trial Judgement in the case of Ratko Mladić to be rendered on 22 November 2017. https://www.icty.org/en/press/trial-judgement-in-the-case-of-ratko-mladic-to-be-rendered-on-22-november-201. Accessed 5 April 2022.
359.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Ratko Mladić, Judgement Volume IV of V, 22 November 2017, IT-09-92-T (Mladić 2017).
360.
Ibid.
361.
Ibid.
362.
IRMCT, The Prosecutor v. Ratko Mladić, Defence Notice of Filing of Public Redacted Appeal Brief on Behalf of Ratko Mladić, 11 September 2018, MICT-13-56-A (Mladić 2018).
363.
IRMCT, The Prosecutor v. Ratko Mladić, Decision on Defence Motions for Disqualification of Judges Theodor Meron, Carmel Agius and Liu Daqun, 3 September 2018, MICT-13-56-A (Mladić 2018).
364.
Ibid.
365.
IRMCT (2021) Appeal Judgement in Prosecutor v. Ratko Mladić scheduled for 8 June 2021: Accreditation procedure now closed. https://www.irmct.org/en/news/21-06-08-appeal-judgement-prosecutor-v-ratko-mladic-scheduled-8-june-2021-accreditation#:~:text=The%20Appeal%20Judgement%20is%20scheduled,accreditation%20and%20collection%20details%20today. Accessed 5 April 2022.
366.
IRMCT, The Prosecutor v. Ratko Mladić, Judgement, 8 June 2021, MICT-13-56-A (Mladić 2021).
367.
Ibid.
368.
See Asser Institute Nexus on Conflict and Crime 2022.
369.
KSC 2021.
370.
KSC (2021) Public Hearing: Initial Appearance of Pjetër Shala on 19 April. https://www.scp-ks.org/en/public-hearing-initial-appearance-pjeter-shala-19-april. Accessed 11 April 2022.
371.
KSC (2021) Pjetër Shala Arrested in Belgium Pursuant to Arrest Warrant of the Kosovo Specialist Chambers. https://www.scp-ks.org/en/pjetyor-shala-arrested-belgium-pursuant-arrest-warrant-kosovo-specialist-chambers. Accessed 11 April 2022.
372.
KSC, Specialist Prosecutor’s Office v. Counsel for Pjetër Shala, Public Redacted Version of Corrected Indictment, 16 November 2021, KSC-BC-2020-04 (Shala 2021).
373.
KSC, Specialist Prosecutor’s Office v. Mr Salih Mustafa, Public Redacted Version of Arrest Warrant for Mr Salih Mustafa, 12 June 2020, KSC-BC-2020-05 (Mustafa 2020).
374.
Ibid.
375.
Boas et al. 2007, pp 143–145.
376.
Ibid.
377.
KSC (2021) Opening of the Trial of Salih Mustafa Before the Kosovo Specialist Chambers. https://www.scp-ks.org/en/opening-trial-salih-mustafa-kosovo-specialist-chambers. Accessed 11 April 2022.
378.
UNSC 2007.
379.
Ibid.
380.
On the crossover between terrorism and IHL, see ICRC 2019, pp 57–63.
381.
STL (2021) UN Secretary General extends mandate of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. https://www.stl-tsl.org/en/media/press-releases/un-secretary-general-extends-mandate-of-the-special-tribunal-for-lebanon. Accessed 11 April 2022.
382.
STL (2021) Severe financial crisis threatens the STL’s ability to fulfil its mandate. https://www.stl-tsl.org/en/media/press-releases/severe-financial-crisis-threatens-the-stls-ability-to-fulfil-its-mandate. Accessed 19 April 2022.
383.
STL (2021) Filing of notices of Appeal marks the start of the Appeals phase in the Ayyash et al. case. https://www.stl-tsl.org/en/media/press-releases/filing-of-notices-of-appeal-marks-the-start-of-the-appeals-phase-in-the-ayyash-et-al-case. Accessed 11 April 2022.
384.
STL, The Prosecutor v. Salim Jamil Ayyash, Hassan Habib Merhi, Hussein Hassan Oneissi and Assad Hassan Sabra, Judgement, 18 August 2020, STL-11-01/T/TC (Ayyash et al. 2020).
385.
Ibid.
386.
STL, The Prosecutor v. Salim Jamil Ayyash, Sentencing Judgement, 11 December 2020, STL-11-01/S/TC (Ayyash 2020).
387.
STL (2021) Appeals Chamber rules that Defence for Salim Ayyash have no standing to appeal his conviction in his absence in the Ayyash et al. case. https://www.stl-tsl.org/en/media/press-releases/appeals-chamber-rules-that-defence-for-salim-ayyash-have-no-standing-to-appeal-his-conviction-in-his-absence-in-the-ayyash-et-al-case. Accessed 11 April 2022.
388.
STL (2021) STL Appeals Chamber schedules an Appeals hearing in the Merhi and Oneissi case for the week of 4 October 2021. https://www.stl-tsl.org/en/media/press-releases/stl-appeals-chamber-schedules-an-appeals-hearing-in-the-merhi-and-oneissi-case-for-the-week-of-4-october-2021. Accessed 11 April 2022.
389.
Ibid.
390.
Law on the Establishment of Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea (2004), Article 2. https://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/legal-documents/KR_Law_as_amended_27_Oct_2004_Eng.pdf. Accessed 12 May 2022.
391.
Elander 2018, p 38.
392.
ECCC (2021) ECCC Supreme Court Chamber Dismisses Request to Send Case 003 to Trial. https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/eccc-supreme-court-chamber-dismisses-request-send-case-003-trial. Accessed 13 April 2022.
393.
ECCC (2018) Co-Investigating Judges Issue Two Separate Closing Orders in the Case Against Meas Muth. https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/co-investigating-judges-issue-two-separate-closing-orders-case-against-meas-muth#:~:text=Today%2C%20the%20Co%2DInvestigating%20Judges,the%20period%20of%20Democratic%20Kampuchea. Accessed 13 April 2022.
394.
ECCC, Decision on International Co-Prosecutor’s Appeal of the Pre-Trial Chamber’s Failure to Send Case 003 to Trial as Required by the ECCC Legal Framework, 17 December 2021, Case File No. 002/19-09-2007-ECCC-SC (Case 003 2021).
395.
ECCC, Decision on International Co-Prosecutor’s Appeal of the Pre-Trial Chamber’s Failure to Send Case 004 to Trial as Required by the ECCC Legal Framework, 28 December 2021, Case File No. 004/23-09-2021-ECCC/SC (06) (Case 004 2021).
396.
ECCC, Written Record of Initial Appearance, 9 December 2015, Case File No. 004/07-09-2009-ECCC-OCIJ.
397.
ECCC (2021) The Supreme Court Chamber Resumes Appeal Hearings on its Second Day. https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/supreme-court-chamber-resumes-appeal-hearings-its-second-day. Accessed 12 April 2022.
398.
ECCC, Case 002/02 Judgement, 16 November 2018, Case File No. 002/19-09-2007/ECCC/TC (Case 002/2 2018).
399.
Cheang S and Rising D (2021) Khmer Rouge official on appeal denies complicity in genocide. https://apnews.com/article/war-crimes-cambodia-phnom-penh-khieu-samphan-a5ceac37b5bccba422e05db5d19dedd2. Accessed 12 May 2022.
400.
Other human rights law courts and institutions were assessed by the authors but no salient developments were identified.
401.
ECtHR, Georgia v. Russia (II), Judgement, 21 January 2021, Application No. 38263/08 (Georgia v. Russia (II)).
402.
Ibid., para 1.
403.
Duffy 2021.
404.
ECtHR, Banković and Others v. Belgium and Others, Admissibility, 12 December 2001, Application No. 52207/99 (Banković v. Belgium).
405.
Georgia v. Russia (II), above n 401, para 126 (emphasis added).
406.
For instance, ECtHR, Al-Skeini and Others v. the United Kingdom, Judgement, Application No. 55721/07.
407.
Dzehtsiarou 2022.
408.
Ibid.
409.
ECtHR, Hanan v. Germany, Judgement, 16 February 2021, Application No. 4871/16 (Hanan v. Germany).
410.
Ibid.
411.
European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights 2021.
412.
Hanan v. Germany, above n 409.
413.
Meloni 2021.
414.
HRC 2021d.
415.
HRC 2021b.
416.
HRC 2021c.
417.
Ibid., para 15.
418.
HRC 2021a.
419.
Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect 2021.
420.
Amnesty International 2001.
421.
Rovcanin H (2021) Bosnia Prosecution Maintains Trend of Accusing Previously Convicted Persons. https://balkaninsight.com/2021/12/30/bosnia-prosecution-maintains-trend-of-accusing-previously-convicted-persons/. Accessed 12 May 2022.
422.
Pekmez I (2021) Bosnian Serb Ex-Serviceman Tried for Killing Civilian Prisoners. https://balkaninsight.com/2021/08/25/bosnian-serb-ex-serviceman-tried-for-killing-civilian-prisoners/. Accessed 16 May 2022.
423.
Trial International (2021) Denying Wartime Horrors Is Now a Criminal Offence In BIH. https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/denying-wartime-horrors-is-now-a-criminal-offence-in-bih/. Accessed 2 May 2022.
424.
Memišević 2021.
425.
Cour Penale Speciale de la Republique Centrafricaine 2021.
426.
Human Rights Watch (2021) Central African Republic: Minister Faces Atrocity Charges. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/24/central-african-republic-minister-faces-atrocity-charges. Accessed 2 May 2022.
427.
Ibid.
428.
MINUSCA (2021) CAR Special Criminal Court (SCC) Now Fully Operational. https://minusca.unmissions.org/en/car-special-criminal-court-scc-now-fully-operational. Accessed 2 May 2022.
429.
RFI (2021) Les premiers procès de la Cour pénale spéciale pour la Centrafrique prévus pour fin 2021. https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20210908-les-premiers-proc%C3%A8s-de-la-cour-p%C3%A9nale-sp%C3%A9ciale-pour-la-centrafrique-pr%C3%A9vues-pour-fin-2021. Accessed 2 May 2022.
430.
France24 (2021) Colombia marks five years since signing of historic peace deal. https://www.france24.com/en/americas/20211125-colombia-marks-five-years-since-signing-of-historic-peace-deal. Accessed 9 May 2022.
431.
International Commission of Jurists 2019.
432.
France24 (2021) Colombia tribunal charges former FARC members with war crimes. https://www.france24.com/en/americas/20210129-colombia-tribunal-charges-former-farc-members-with-war-crimes. Accessed 9 May 2022.
433.
Bermúdez Liévano A (2021) Colombia: 25 Army Officials Charged with War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity. https://www.justiceinfo.net/en/80040-colombia-25-army-officials-charged-war-crimes-crimes-against-humanity.html. Accessed 10 May 2022.
434.
The Guardian (2021) Colombian court accuses soldiers of murdering at least 120 civilians. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/06/colombia-court-military-civilians-killed-false-positives. Accessed 9 May 2022.
435.
Bermúdez Liévano A (2021) A first in Colombia: Eight FARCS charged with War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity. https://www.justiceinfo.net/en/69281-first-colombia-eight-farcs-charged-war-crimes-crimes-against-humanity.html. Accessed 10 May 2022.
436.
Ibid.
437.
Trial International (2021) DRC: Life Sentence for a Kamuina Nsapu Commander, Victims Acknowledged and Satisfied. https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/drc-life-sentence-for-a-kamuina-nsapu-commander-victims-acknowledged-and-satisfied/. Accessed 2 May 2022.
438.
Mbuyi J (2021) Accused Faces Victims in First Kasai War Crimes Trial. https://www.justiceinfo.net/en/74897-accused-faces-victims-first-kasai-war-crimes-trial.html. Accessed 2 May 2022.
439.
Trial International (2021) above n 437.
440.
Ibid.
441.
Trial International (2021) Gibril Massaquoi. https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/gibril-massaquoi/. Accessed 2 May 2022.
442.
France24 (2021) Hearings begin in landmark Liberia war-crimes trial. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210223-hearings-begin-in-landmark-liberia-war-crimes-trial. Accessed 2 May 2022.
443.
Trial International (2021) above n 441.
444.
Rédaction Africanews (2021) Liberia war crimes suspect Gibril Massaquoi’s trial begins in Finland. https://www.africanews.com/2021/02/03/liberia-war-crimes-suspect-gibril-massaquoi-s-trial-begins-in-finland//. Accessed 2 May 2022.
445.
Trial International (2021) above n 419.
446.
Trial International (2021) Roger Lumbala. https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/roger-lumbala/. Accessed 2 May 2022.
447.
Ibid.
448.
UN News (2003) DR of Congo: UN reports instances of cannibalism, systematic killing and rape. https://news.un.org/en/story/2003/07/75822-dr-congo-un-reports-instances-cannibalism-systematic-killing-and-rape. Accessed 2 May 2022.
449.
Human Rights Watch (2021) The Gambia: Truth Commission Calls for Prosecuting Ex-Officials. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/25/gambia-truth-commission-calls-prosecuting-ex-officials. Accessed 2 May 2022.
450.
Amnesty International 2021b.
451.
Trial International (2021) The Gambia: Truth Commission Calls for Prosecution of Ex-Officials. https://trialinternational.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/CP_Gambie_TRRC_Novembre_2021-1.pdf. Accessed 2 May 2022.
452.
Truth Reconciliation and Reparations Commission 2021.
453.
Doughty Street Chambers (2021) ISIS member convicted of crimes against humanity for aiding and abetting enslavement of a Yazidi woman. https://www.doughtystreet.co.uk/news/isis-member-convicted-crimes-against-humanity-aiding-and-abetting-enslavement-yazidi-woman#:~:text=This%20week%2C%20the%20Higher%20Regional,and%20three%20months%20in%20prison. Accessed 3 May 2022.
454.
Trial International (2021) Nurten J. https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/nurten-j/. Accessed 3 May 2022.
455.
Yadav M (2021) Germany court sentences two Syrians for war crimes and terrorism. https://www.jurist.org/news/2021/08/germany-court-sentences-two-syrians-for-war-crime-and-terrorism/ Accessed 3 May 2022.
456.
Ibid.
457.
District Court of The Hague, ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2021:5336, Judgement, 21 April 2021. https://uitspraken.rechtspraak.nl/inziendocument?id=ECLI%3ANL%3ARBDHA%3A2021%3A5336. Accessed 10 May 2022.
458.
Ibid.
459.
District Court of The Hague, ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2021:9933, Judgement, 29 June 2021. https://uitspraken.rechtspraak.nl/inziendocument?id=ECLI%3ANL%3ARBDHA%3A2021%3A9933. Accessed 10 May 2022.
460.
AP News (2021) Dutch court convicts woman for spreading IS propaganda. https://apnews.com/article/islamic-state-group-europe-middle-east-1b2931f4b6330ee768cc6e395175d9ff. Accessed 10 May 2022.
461.
District Court of The Hague, ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2021:7533, Judgement, 16 July 2021. ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2021:7533. https://uitspraken.rechtspraak.nl/inziendocument?id=ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2021:7533. Accessed 10 May 2022; Quell M (2021) Syrian Refugee Convicted of War Crimes in Dutch Court. https://www.courthousenews.com/syrian-refugee-convicted-of-war-crimes-in-dutch-court/. Accessed 3 May 2022.
462.
Quell M (2021) ibid.
463.
Netherlands Public Prosecution Service (2021) Dutch Police arrest man on suspicion of war crimes Surinamese Interior War. https://www.prosecutionservice.nl/latest/news/2021/10/29/dutch-police-arrest-man-on-suspicion-of-war-crimes-surinamese-interior-war. Accessed 10 May 2022.
464.
Swedish Prosecution Authority (2021) Prosecution for War Crimes in Iran. https://via.tt.se/pressmeddelande/prosecution-for-war-crimes-in-iran?publisherId=3235541&releaseId=3303709. Accessed 3 May 2022.
465.
Ibid.
466.
Radio Farda (2019) Sweden Jails Iranian Prosecutor Implicated In Mass Execution In Prisons. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/08/09/sweden-iran-war-crimes-trial-opens. Accessed 3 May 2022.
467.
Human Rights Watch (2021) Sweden: Iran War Crimes Trial Opens. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/08/09/sweden-iran-war-crimes-trial-opens. Accessed 3 May 2022.
468.
Human Rights Watch (2021) Liberia: Landmark Swiss Conviction for Wartime Atrocities. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/06/18/liberia-landmark-swiss-conviction-wartime-atrocities. Accessed 3 May 2022.
469.
Open Society Justice Initiative 2019.
470.
Office of the Attorney General of Switzerland (2019) International criminal law: first indictment filed in the context of the Liberian civil war. https://www.admin.ch/gov/en/start/documentation/media-releases.msg-id-74457.html. Accessed 3 May 2022.
471.
Information Department of the Office of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine (2021) The Law “On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine Concerning the Implementation of Norms of International Criminal and Humanitarian Law” was adopted. https://www.rada.gov.ua/news/Povidomlennya/208710.html. Accessed 10 May 2022.
472.
Human Rights Watch (2021) Ukraine War Crimes Arrest a Step Toward Justice. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/12/ukraine-war-crimes-arrest-step-toward-justice. Accessed 10 May 2022.
473.
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) 2022, p 1.
474.
Ibid.
475.
Ibid.
476.
Ibid.
477.
SIPRI (2022) World military expenditure passes $2 trillion for first time. https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2022/world-military-expenditure-passes-2-trillion-first-time. Accessed 4 May 2022.
478.
Abramson J (2021) ATT Members Highlight Small Arms, Light Weapons. https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-10/news/att-members-highlight-small-arms-light-weapons. Accessed 29 April 2022.
479.
ATT Secretariat 2021, para 21-a.
480.
Ibid., para 26 a-c.
481.
ATT 2022; Abramson J (2021) above n 478.
482.
Conventional Weapons Convention (CCW) 2022, para 6.
483.
Stop Killer Robots (2021) GGE pushes decisions to critical Review Conference. https://www.stopkillerrobots.org/news/gge-pushes-decisions-to-critical-review-conference/. Accessed 29 April 2022.
484.
Stop Killer Robots (2021) Historic opportunity to regulate killer robots fails as a handful of states block the majority. https://www.stopkillerrobots.org/news/historic-opportunity-to-regulate-killer-robots-fails-as-a-handful-of-states-block-the-majority/. Accessed 29 April 2022.
485.
Humanitarian Disarmament 2021.
486.
Ibid.
487.
Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects, opened for signature 10 October 1980, 1342 UNTS 137 (entered into force 2 December 1983).
488.
Cluster Munition Coalition 2021, p 1.
489.
Ibid., p 2.
490.
Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) 2021a.
491.
Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) 2021b, para 27.
492.
Cluster Munition Coalition 2021, p 2.
493.
Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) 2021b, para 29.
494.
Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) 2022.
495.
See, e.g., ICJ, Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 8 July 1996 (Nuclear Weapons case) ICJ Reports 226, p 226, para 78, where the ICJ recognised that the prohibition on indiscriminate weapons was one of the cardinal principles of IHL.
496.
International Campaign to Ban Landmines 2021, p 1.
497.
Ibid.; Cookman L (2021) Nagorno-Karabakh: Land still laced with mines, year after war. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/9/nagorno-karabakh-a-land-still-laced-with-mines-a-year-after-war. Accessed 29 April 2022.
498.
International Campaign to Ban Landmines 2021, p 2.
499.
Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention 2019, p 3, para 2.
500.
Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention 2021, paras 42–90.
501.
Ibid., para 91.
502.
International Campaign to Ban Landmines 2021, p 1.
503.
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) 2021d, p 1.
504.
Ibid.
505.
OPCW News (2021) Conference of the States Parties adopt Decision to suspend certain rights and privileges of the Syrian Arab Republic under the CWC. https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and. Accessed 29 April 2022.
506.
OPCW 2021a, para 2.
507.
Ibid., para 4.
508.
Ibid., paras 5–6.
509.
Ibid., paras 7–8.
510.
OPCW 2021c, para 5.
511.
Ibid., para 44.
512.
OPCW News (2021) Decision on aerosolised use of Central Nervous System-acting chemicals adopted by OPCW Conference of States Parties. https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/12/decision-aerosolised-use-central-nervous-system-acting-chemicals-adopted. Accessed 29 April 2022.
513.
OPCW Scientific Advisory Board (SAB) 2018, para 101.
514.
OPCW 2021b, p 1.
515.
Arms Control Association 2018.
516.
Saunders 2021.
517.
Ibid.
518.
Lentzos F and Koblentz G D (2021) Fifty-nine labs around world handle the deadliest pathogens – only a quarter score high on safety. https://theconversation.com/fifty-nine-labs-around-world-handle-the-deadliest-pathogens-only-a-quarter-score-high-on-safety-161777. Accessed 13 May 2022.
519.
Science and Technology Committee of NATO 2021.
520.
Ibid.
521.
UN ODA 2021.
522.
Arms Control Association ODA 2022a.
523.
Arms Control Association ODA 2022b.
524.
Ibid.
525.
Ibid.
526.
Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, CN.478.2020 (opened for signature 7 July 2017, entered into force 22 January 2021).
527.
UN Office for Disarmament Affairs, Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/tpnw/. Accessed 29 April 2022.
528.
UN Office for Disarmament Affairs, Declarations pursuant to Article 2 of the TPNW. https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/tpnw/article-2-of-the-tpnw/. Accessed 29 April 2022.
529.
UN Office for Disarmament Affairs, Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons: Status of the treaty. https://treaties.unoda.org/t/tpnw. Accessed 29 April 2022.
530.
Ibid.
531.
ICRC 2022a.
532.
Human Rights Watch (2021) Killer Robots: Military Powers Stymie Ban. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/12/19/killer-robots-military-powers-stymie-ban. Accessed 3 May 2022.
533.
ICRC 2022a.
534.
Paikowsky 2021.
535.
Mehta 2020.
536.
Paikowsky 2021.
537.
Sevastopulo D and Hille K (2021) China tests new space capability with hypersonic missile. https://www.ft.com/content/ba0a3cde-719b-4040-93cb-a486e1f843fb. Accessed 6 May 2022.
538.
Buono S (2021) Fear about China’s new space weapon echoes older worries about war from space. https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2021/10/26/fear-about-chinas-new-space-weapon-echoes-older-worries-about-war-space/. Accessed 6 May 2022.
539.
Ibid.
540.
Sevastopulo D and Hille K (2021) above n 537.
541.
Balmforth T (2021) ‘Razor-sharp precision’: Russia hails anti-satellite weapons test. https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/russia-dismisses-us-criticism-anti-satellite-weapons-test-2021-11-16/. Accessed 6 May 2022.
542.
Ibid.
543.
Stephens 2018, p 75.
544.
Žilinskas and Marozas 2022.
545.
ICRC 2021c.
546.
The Woomera Manual Project 2022.
547.
UNGA First Committee (2021) Delegates Approve 5 Draft Resolutions, as First Committee Takes Action on Peaceful Use, Non-Weaponization of Outer Space, Chemical Weapons. https://www.un.org/press/en/2021/gadis3676.doc.htm. Accessed 6 May 2022.
548.
Ibid.
549.
Group of Governmental Experts on Advancing Responsible State Behaviour in Cyberspace in the Context of International Security 2021.
550.
Ibid.
551.
See, for instance, Cyber Law Interactive Toolkit 2021.

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Authors and Affiliations

T.M.C. Asser Institute, The Hague, The Netherlands
James Patrick Sexton
Prakken d’Oliveira Human Rights Lawyers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Florent Beurret
The Honourable Society of King’s Inns, Dublin, Ireland
Nathan O’Regan

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James Patrick Sexton
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Florent Beurret
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Nathan O’Regan
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Correspondence to James Patrick Sexton .

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Department of Law/Public Law, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Heike Krieger
International Studies Division, Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas (CIDE), Mexico City, Mexico
Pablo Kalmanovitz
Buchmann Faculty of Law, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Eliav Lieblich
Manchester International Law Centre, The University of Manchester, School of Law, Manchester, UK
Rebecca Mignot-Mahdavi

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Sexton, J.P., Beurret, F., O’Regan, N. (2023). Year in Review 2021. In: Krieger, H., Kalmanovitz, P., Lieblich, E., Mignot-Mahdavi, R. (eds) Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, Volume 24 (2021). Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-559-1_8

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-559-1_8
Published: 01 January 2023
Publisher Name: T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague
Print ISBN: 978-94-6265-558-4
Online ISBN: 978-94-6265-559-1
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