Abstract
This chapter forms the substantive section on the historical genesis of the crime of trafficking in persons under international law. The chapter intends to provide the reader with a historical understanding of the stages and phases that took place and which finally resulted in the international community adopting the current TIP Protocol 2000 which provides the most widely accepted definition of what amounts to trafficking in persons. The chapter defines the crime of human trafficking and analyses its constituent three elements of the action, means and purpose elements and points out its implications for the states parties to the TIP Protocol 2000 and the Organised Crime Convention 2000. The chapter examines almost all the individual constitutive components of the action, means and purpose elements. This analysis serves to lay a foundation for examining the criminalisation provisions of the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act 2008 in Chap. 7. It also helps to gauge Tanzania’s compliance or implementation of its international and domestic anti-trafficking obligations assumed under the TIP Protocol 2000 in so far as the obligation to criminalise the crime of trafficking in persons is concerned.
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Notes
- 1.
Article 3(a).
- 2.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
Linking the current understanding of trafficking in persons partly as an outgrowth of the historical slavery, which this book avoids, has been taken by several authors including Munk 2010, p. 23; Winterdyk et al. 2012, p. 6; Scarpa 2008, pp. 3–4; Olaniyi 2003, p. 46; Obokata 2006, pp. 10–13; Picarelli 2007, pp. 26–34; Cullen-DuPont 2009, pp. 3, 6 et seq.; Bales 2007; Bales and Soodalter 2009.
- 6.
- 7.
- 8.
International Agreement for the Suppression of the “White Slave Traffic”, opened for signature 18 May 1904, 1 LNTS 83 (1904), amended by a Protocol approved by the UN General Assembly on 3 December 1948, opened for signature on 4 May 1949, 30 UNTS 23, entered into force 21 June 1951 (White Slave Traffic Agreement). Briefly on this instrument, see Scarpa 2008, p. 50; Outshoorn 2015, p. 9. See as well Halley 2017, p. 180; Pati 2011, pp. 104–105.
- 9.
- 10.
- 11.
International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic, opened for signature 4 May 1910, 3 LNTS 278 (1910), amended by a Protocol approved by the General Assembly on 4 May 1949, 30 UNTS 23, entered into force 14 August 1951 (1910 White Slave Traffic Convention). See as well Martin 2014, p. 157; Obokata 2019, pp. 531–532.
- 12.
Article 1: “Any person who, to gratify the passions of others, has hired, abducted or enticed, even with her consent, a woman or a girl who is a minor, for immoral purposes, even when the various acts which together constitute the offence were committed in different countries, shall be punished” and Article 2 of the White Slave Traffic Convention: “Any person who, to gratify the passions of others, has by fraud or by the use of violence, threats, abuse of authority, or any other means of constraint, hired, abducted or enticed a woman or a girl of full age for immoral purpose, even when the various acts which together constitute the offence were committed in different countries, shall be punished.”
- 13.
- 14.
- 15.
Articles 3–11.
- 16.
- 17.
- 18.
- 19.
International Convention for the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Children, opened for signature 30 September 1921, 9 LNTS 415 (1921), amended by a Protocol approved by the General Assembly on 20 October 1943, 53 UNTS 13, entered into force 15 June 1922. (1921 International Convention).
- 20.
1921 International Convention, Article 2. See as well Martin 2014, pp. 157–158.
- 21.
1921 International Convention, Article 3.
- 22.
1921 International Convention, Article 4.
- 23.
1921 International Convention, Articles 6, 7.
- 24.
- 25.
Article 1: “Whoever, in order to gratify the passions of another person, has procured, enticed or led away, even with her consent, a woman or girl of full age for immoral purposes to be carried out in another country, shall be punished….”, International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age, opened for signature 11 October 1933, 150 LNTS 431 (1933), amended by a Protocol approved the General Assembly on 20 October 1947, 53 UNTS 13, entered into force 24 August 1934 (1933 International Convention). See also Doezema 2002, p. 23; Martin 2014, pp. 158–159; Stoyanova 2017, p. 20.
- 26.
- 27.
1933 International Convention, Article 3.
- 28.
- 29.
- 30.
- 31.
Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, opened for signature 21 March 1950, 96 UNTS 271 (1949), entered into force 25 July 1951 (1949 Trafficking Convention). Briefly on the substance of this Convention, see Vrancken and Chetty 2009, pp. 116–118.
- 32.
- 33.
- 34.
- 35.
1949 Trafficking Convention, Articles 3 and 4.
- 36.
1949 Trafficking Convention, Articles 5–20.
- 37.
Stoyanova 2017, p. 21.
- 38.
- 39.
- 40.
- 41.
Pickup 1998, p. 44; Miko 2007, p. 38; Suchland 2015, p. 1; Savona and Stefanizzi 2007a, b, p. 2; Bruch 2004, pp. 11–12. Important to note, however, is the point argued by Piotrowicz that the phenomenon of trafficking in persons “is not a product of the collapse of communism” because trafficking has existed and exists in all societies, see Piotrowicz 2002, p. 263.
- 42.
- 43.
- 44.
- 45.
- 46.
- 47.
UNGA 1994, paras 10–11.
- 48.
Resolution 49/166, para 3 to the Preamble.
- 49.
Resolution 49/166, paras 4–5 to the Preamble.
- 50.
UNGA 1995 Traffic in Women and Girls: Report of the Secretary-General. UN Doc. A/50/369, 24 August 1995 (Report A/50/369).
- 51.
Report A/50/369, paras 2–44.
- 52.
Report A/50/369, paras 1–7.
- 53.
Report A/50/369, para 17: “Trafficking across international borders is by definition illegal. The very nature of undocumented status makes illegal migrants vulnerable to various forms of exploitation. The question must be asked, however, whether trafficking is the same as illegal migration. It would seem that the two are related, but different. Migration across frontiers without documentation does not have to be coerced or exploitative. At the same time, persons can be trafficked with their consent. A distinction could be made in terms of the purpose for which borders are crossed and whether movement occurs through the instrumentality of another person. Under this distinction, trafficking of women and girls would be defined in terms of “the end goal of forcing women and girl children into sexually or economically oppressive and exploitative situations” and the fact that it is done “for the profit of recruiters, traffickers and crime syndicates”.
- 54.
Gallagher 2010, p. 18.
- 55.
UNGA 1996a, para 13.
- 56.
UNGA 1996b.
- 57.
“What is encompassed within the concept of trafficking and the exploitation of the prostitution of others is set out in Articles 1 and 2 of the 1949 Convention for the Suppression of the traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others. The Convention refers to actions both national and international, indicating that the phenomenon must be seen at both levels. The concern of the United Nations is primarily at the international level, but there are clear links with national action. It should be noted, however, that since 1949 the concept of trafficking has been extended to include trafficking for the purpose of other forms of exploitation of women…. This wider view of trafficking and exploitation is reflected in the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, which also includes forced marriages and forced labour within the concept, and it is the wider view that is used in the present report”, paras 4–5.
- 58.
UNGA 1996b, para 6.
- 59.
Official website of the IOM, available at https://www.iom.int/about-iom. Accessed 8 June 2018.
- 60.
Wijers and Lap-Chew 1999, pp. 34–35.
- 61.
- 62.
Migrant Smuggling Protocol 2000, Article 3(a). See also Rao and Presenti 2012, p. 233.
- 63.
- 64.
- 65.
Wijers and Lap-Chew 1999, pp. 30–31.
- 66.
Coso 2011, pp. 206–207.
- 67.
- 68.
European Parliament 1996 Resolution, para A.
- 69.
European Parliament 1996 Resolution, para U.
- 70.
European Parliament 1996 Resolution, para 1.
- 71.
European Parliament 1996 Resolution, para 1.
- 72.
- 73.
European Commission 1996. The Communication defined also trafficking as “The transport of women from third countries into the European Union (including perhaps subsequent movements between Member States) for the purpose of sexual exploitation…. Trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation covers women who have suffered intimidation and/or violence through the trafficking. Initial consent may not be relevant, as some enter the trafficking chain knowing they will work as prostitutes, but who are then deprived of their basic human rights, in conditions which are akin to slavery”, para 4.
- 74.
Council of the European Union 1997.
- 75.
Gallagher 2010, p. 21.
- 76.
“Trafficking in women relates to any behaviour which facilitates the legal or illegal entry into, transit through, residence in or exit from the territory of a country, of women for the purpose of gainful sexual exploitation by means of coercion, in particular violence or threats, or deceit, abuse of authority or other pressure which is such that the person has no real and acceptable choice but to submit to the pressure or abuse involved”, European Union Ministerial Conference 1997, p. 3.
- 77.
Committee of Ministers 2000.
- 78.
Briefly, Wijers and Lap-Chew 1999, pp. 32–33.
- 79.
Quoted by Wijers and Lap-Chew 1999, p. 32.
- 80.
Gallagher 2010, p. 20.
- 81.
Gallagher 2010, p. 22. Regarding the involvement of legal persons such as business corporations in trafficking in persons, whether directly or indirectly, Muskat-Gorska notes that “the fact that 90% of forced labour cases are estimated to take place in the private sector… calls for urgent attention to the legal accountability of business actors involved in abuses or benefiting from labour or services provided by trafficked persons, including through their supply chains”, Muskat-Gorska 2017, p. 443.
- 82.
Inter-American Convention on International Traffic in Minors, opened for signature 18 March 1994, OAS Doc. OEA/Ser.K/XXI.5, 79 OASTS, reprinted in (1994) 33 ILM 721, entered into force 15 August 1997 (Inter-American Convention).
- 83.
Inter-American Convention, Article 2(b).
- 84.
Inter-American Convention, Article 2(b).
- 85.
“Unlawful purpose” is defined by the Inter-American Convention under Article 2(c) to mean: “Prostitution, sexual exploitation, servitude or any other purpose unlawful in either the State of the minor’s habitual residence or the State Party where the minor is located”.
- 86.
The Convention defined “unlawful means” under Article 2(d) as: “Kidnapping, fraudulent or coerced consent, the giving or receipt of unlawful payments or benefits to achieve the consent of the parents, persons or institutions having care of the child, or any other means unlawful in either the State of the minor’s habitual residence or the State Party where the minor is located”. See also Davitti 2010, p. 43.
- 87.
- 88.
Commission on Human Rights 2000.
- 89.
- 90.
Commission on Human Rights 2000, para 17.
- 91.
Gallagher and Ezeilo 2015, p. 914.
- 92.
Report A/50/369, para 18.
- 93.
UNGA 1996b, para 24.
- 94.
European Parliament 1996, para 31.
- 95.
- 96.
On the extensive discussion of these debates and some contestations on the TIP Protocol 2000 and its negotiation process, see Wylie 2016, pp. 52–66.
- 97.
UNODC Travaux Préparatoires 2006, pp. 319–321.
- 98.
- 99.
Shoaps 2013, p. 936.
- 100.
TIP Protocol 2000, Article 3.
- 101.
- 102.
- 103.
- 104.
- 105.
TIP Protocol 2000, Article 3(a). See also Gallagher 2017, pp. 83–111.
- 106.
ICAT 2012, pp. 2–3; Lansink 2006, p. 49; Mahdavi 2011, pp. 16–17; Kranrattanasuit 2014, p. 1. Unconvincing, however, is the argument advanced by Di Nicola that the definition of trafficking requires the presence of four elements, namely: (a) recruitment; (b) movement/receipt; (c) deception, abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability; and (d) purpose of exploitation because recruitment and movement are clearly one and part of the same action element, see Di Nicola 2007, p. 51.
- 107.
Wylie 2016, pp. 4, 6.
- 108.
- 109.
- 110.
- 111.
- 112.
- 113.
- 114.
- 115.
- 116.
- 117.
Odera and Malinowski 2011, p. 17.
- 118.
- 119.
“Recruit”, Online Oxford Dictionaries. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/recruit_1?q=recruit. Accessed 13 July 2018. See also Stoyanova 2017, p. 34.
- 120.
Werle and Jessberger 2014, pp. 464–465.
- 121.
- 122.
“Transport”, Online Oxford Dictionaries. https://www.lexico.com/definition/transport. Accessed 13 July 2018.
- 123.
- 124.
“Transfer”, Online Oxford Dictionaries. https://www.lexico.com/definition/transfer. Accessed 13 July 2018.
- 125.
- 126.
- 127.
- 128.
“Receipt”, Online Oxford Dictionaries, https://www.lexico.com/definition/receipt. Accessed 13 July 2018.
- 129.
- 130.
International Labour Office 2005, p. 10.
- 131.
- 132.
- 133.
Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act 2008, Section 4(1).
- 134.
- 135.
Ad Hoc Committee 2000, p. 3.
- 136.
- 137.
Article 3(b): “The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth in subpara (a) of this article shall be irrelevant where any of the means set forth in subpara (a) have been used.”
- 138.
- 139.
- 140.
- 141.
- 142.
- 143.
- 144.
UNODC 2009d, p. 3.
- 145.
“Coercion” Oxford Online Dictionaries. https://www.lexico.com/definition/coercion. Accessed 17 July 2018.
- 146.
- 147.
UNODC Model Law 2009, p. 11.
- 148.
See, for example, rule 70 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Official Records, UN Doc. ICC-ASP/1/3; Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor v Kunarac, Criminal Judgment, 22 February 2001, Case No. IT-96-23, paras. 459, 542.
- 149.
Gallagher 2010, p. 31.
- 150.
International Labour Office 2005, p. 21.
- 151.
See, for example, Ad Hoc Committee 1999c, Article 2(2)(a).
- 152.
- 153.
- 154.
“Kidnap”, Online Oxford Dictionaries. https://www.lexico.com/definition/kidnap. Accessed 18 July 2018. See also Iroanya 2018, pp. 2–3.
- 155.
“Fraud”, Online Cambridge Dictionary. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/fraud; “Deception”, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/deceive. Accessed 18 July 2018.
- 156.
- 157.
- 158.
UNODC Travaux Préparatoires 2006, p. 343.
- 159.
The 1910 White Slave Traffic Convention, Article 2.
- 160.
“Power”, Oxford Online dictionary. https://www.lexico.com/definition/power. Accessed 19 July 2018.
- 161.
- 162.
- 163.
Council of Europe/United Nations Study 2009, p. 79; UNODC Model Law 2009, p. 10; Gallagher 2013, p. 13 et seq.; SAP-FL 2009, pp. 1–8; UNODC 2009a, pp. 1–10; UNODC Legislative Guide 2004, pp. 265–269; European Union Directive 2011/36/EU, Article 2(2); National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual Violence against Children 2016, p. 12.
- 164.
UNODC Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Section 2012, p. 1; National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual Violence against Children 2016, pp. 12–13.
- 165.
- 166.
- 167.
- 168.
UNODC Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Section 2012, p. 2.
- 169.
European Union Directive 2011/36/EU, Article 2(2).
- 170.
UNODC Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Section 2012, p. 2.
- 171.
Gallagher 2013, pp. 14–15. On the international nature of this obligation, see Organised Crime Convention 2000, Article 31(7); TIP Protocol 2000, Articles 9(1), 9(5); Directive 2011/36/EU, Article 18(2); CoE Anti-Trafficking Convention 2005, Article 5(2); SAARC Convention 2002, Articles VIII(2), VIII(7); ASEAN Convention 2015, Article 11(4).
- 172.
- 173.
In Tanzania, such persons are criminally liable under Section 7 which criminalises the offence of trafficking in persons by an intermediary.
- 174.
- 175.
UNODC Travaux Préparatoires 2006, p. 341.
- 176.
UNODC Travaux Préparatoires 2006, pp. 342–343.
- 177.
See, for example, Council of Europe/United Nations Study 2009, p. 79.
- 178.
UNODC Travaux Préparatoires 2006, p. 343.
- 179.
Gallagher 2013, p. 19.
- 180.
Gallagher 2013, p. 33.
- 181.
TIP Protocol 2000, Article 3(c). See also Stevens 2006, p. 663.
- 182.
Aronowitz 2009, p. 2.
- 183.
- 184.
- 185.
- 186.
Jovanovic 2017, p. 49.
- 187.
TIP Protocol 2000, Article 3(b).
- 188.
- 189.
But as cautioned by ICAT, “This may, however, have a number of undesirable consequences, including the inability of trafficked persons to access appropriate services and that any criminal justice action under non-TIP laws may not show up in counter-TIP data”, ICAT 2016, p. 35.
- 190.
- 191.
TIP Protocol 2000, Article 3(a). On exploitation and the advantages of the term remaining undefined, see Skrivankova 2018, pp. 109–119.
- 192.
This is particularly acknowledged by Munk, see Munk 2010, p. 19.
- 193.
- 194.
- 195.
- 196.
- 197.
Dottridge 2017, pp. 65–74.
- 198.
TIP Protocol 2000, Article 14.
- 199.
- 200.
1933 International Convention, Article 1; 1949 Trafficking Convention, Article 1.
- 201.
Gallagher 2010, pp. 14–15.
- 202.
- 203.
- 204.
- 205.
UNODC Model Law 2009, pp. 13–14.
- 206.
- 207.
- 208.
- 209.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, opened for signature 20 November 1989, 1577 UNTS 3 (1989), entered into force 2 September 1990, Article 34; Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, opened for signature 25 May 2000, 2171 UNTS 227 (2000), entered into force 18 January 2002, Article 3.
- 210.
UNODC Travaux Préparatoires 2006, pp. 334, 340, 342, 347.
- 211.
Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour, opened for signature 28 June 1930, 39 UNTS 55, ILO No. 29 (1930), entered into force 1 May 1932, Article 2(1); Convention Concerning the Abolition of Forced Labour, opened for signature 27 June 1957, 320 UNTS 291, ILO No. 105 1957, entered into force 17 January 1959, Article 1.
- 212.
- 213.
Gallagher 2010, p. 35.
- 214.
- 215.
- 216.
- 217.
- 218.
- 219.
Kane 2013, p. 119.
- 220.
Scarpa 2008, p. 78; Jeßberger 2016, p. 330; Pocar 2007, p. 9. As regards the principles of jus cogens and obligations erga omnes, see Kadellbach 2006, pp. 21–40; Czapliński 2006, pp. 83–97; Memeti and Nuhija 2013, pp. 31–47; Bassiouni 1996, pp. 63–74; Frowein 1981, pp. 327–329; Welch, Jr. 2009, pp. 74–75.
- 221.
- 222.
European Court of Human Rights Second Section, Case of Siliadin v. France, Human Rights Judgment, 26 July 2005, Application No. 73316/01; European Court of Human Rights First Section, Case of Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia, Judgment (Merits and Just Satisfaction), 7 January 2010, Application No. 25965/04; European Court of Human Rights Fourth Section, Case of C.N. v. The United Kingdom, Human Rights Judgment, 13 November 2012, Application No. 4239/08. See also Schabas 2015, pp. 201–218; ECOWAS Community Court of Justice, Hadijatou Mani Koraou v. Republic of Niger, Human Rights Judgment, 27 October 2008, Judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/06/08 and its considered discussion by Allain 2009c, pp. 311–317.
- 223.
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovac and Zoran Vukovic, Criminal Judgment, 12 June 2002, Case No. IT-96-23 & IT-96-23/1-A.
- 224.
High Court of Australia, The Queen v Tang, Appeal Judgment, 28 August 2008, [2008] HCA 39. For extensive commentary regarding The Queen v Tang, see Allain 2009e, pp. 246-257.
- 225.
Special Court for Sierra Leone Trial Chamber II, Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu, Trial Judgment, 20 June 2007, Case No. SCSL-04-16-T.
- 226.
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 1998, entered into force 1 July 2002, Articles 7(1)(c), 7(1)(g); 8(2)(b)(xxii); 8(2)(e)(vi) (Rome Statute).
- 227.
But as noted by the European Parliament: “Whereas THB (or trafficking in persons) as a concept is distinct from slavery and broader discussions of exploitation; whereas not all types of exploitation would qualify as THB” (emphasis supplied), European Parliament 2016, para AB. See as well Dottridge 2017, pp. 75–77.
- 228.
- 229.
- 230.
- 231.
- 232.
Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery, opened for signature 25 September 1926, 60 LNTS 254 (1926), entered into force 9 March 1927 (1926 Slavery Convention).
- 233.
- 234.
“Status”, Online Cambridge Dictionary. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/status. Accessed 8 August 2018.
- 235.
“Origin of the Word Status in the Legal Sense”, Online Oxford Dictionaries. https://www.lexico.com/definition/status. Accessed 8 August 2018.
- 236.
- 237.
The Queen v Tang 2008, para 25.
- 238.
“Condition”: http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/38550?rskey=rxwkfP&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid. Accessed 8 August 2018.
- 239.
Allain 2008, p. 75.
- 240.
For example, The Queen v Tang 2008, 39, para 25.
- 241.
- 242.
- 243.
As it was held in Siliadin v France 2005, para 122. Some authors have rejected this approach, see for example, McGeehan 2012, p. 440.
- 244.
As it was held in Prosecutor v Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovac and Zoran Vukovic 2002, para 117 and also stated by Weissbrodt and Anti-Slavery International 2002, paras 11–12; Happold 2009, p. 603. Some authors have rejected this expansionist view, see for example, Gallagher 2009, pp. 800–810. See as well Siller 2016, p. 408.
- 245.
- 246.
The Queen v Tang 2008, para 28.
- 247.
The Queen v Tang 2008, para 33.
- 248.
- 249.
UNODC Model Law 2009, pp. 19-20; The Queen v Tang 2008, paras 38, 89, 95.
- 250.
- 251.
Research Network on the Legal Parameters of Slavery 2012, guidelines 2, 3.
- 252.
- 253.
- 254.
Rome Statute, Article 7(1)(c), 7(2)(c). see as well Cryer et al. 2010, pp. 247–249.
- 255.
Werle and Jessberger 2014, pp. 334–347; Ambos 2014, pp. 50–77; Cole and Vermeltfoort 2018, p. 20; Tavakoli 2009, p. 81. On the controversial analysis of how the contextual element of the crimes against humanity can readily be fulfilled in the context of trafficking in persons see Atak and Simeon 2014, pp. 1036–1037; Obokata 2006, pp. 136–139.
- 256.
- 257.
Van der Wilt 2014, pp. 305–306; Piotrowicz 2012, p. 185. Pocar posits that the way trafficking in persons results into exploitation and control of one person by another, it also can be subsumed in the Rome Statute’s catch-all provision of Article 7(1)(k) of “other inhuman acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health”, Pocar 2007, pp. 7–8. While this approach is plausible, nevertheless, it must be shown that all the elements of the crimes against humanity have been fulfilled, including the policy element. A similar approach of reasoning is taken by Obokata when he argues that the crime of trafficking can be argued from the Rome Statute’s crimes against humanity of torture, forced transfer of population and deportation, see Obokata 2006, pp. 124–127. Seeing the limitation and difficulty of including or prosecuting the crime of trafficking in persons as a crime against humanity, Moran proposes for the use of the “threshold requirements of the crime of genocide as a theoretical model” to criminalise and prosecute trafficking as an independent “core crime” under the Rome Statute because the “brutality which occurs when human beings are trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation by criminal gangs is of an equally egregious nature” as those crimes listed under article 5 of the Rome Statute, Moran 2014, pp. 33–34, 40 et seq. It seems, however, the approach Moran uses, especially on the establishment of the contextual element of the specific or special intent of the crime of genocide which in the Rome Statute must be established to elevate genocide to international law’s core crimes, is somehow unconvincing when the requirement of the profit to traffickers is added.
- 258.
- 259.
Rome Statute, Articles 1, 5.
- 260.
Another reason for not considering trafficking in persons, in addition to the requirements of the Rome Statute is noted by Hauck who argues that: “Although trafficking in persons appears to be punishable, the reasons for its international disregard are obvious: while the misconduct can be defined clearly in line with Article 3 of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, and while many countries provide for this offence in their domestic jurisdictions, a general and uniform international state practice cannot be detected”, Hauck 2016, p. 464.
- 261.
International Criminal Court Elements of the Crimes 2000, Article 7(1)(c).
- 262.
International Criminal Court Elements of the Crimes 2000, Footnote 11, Article 7(1)(c).
- 263.
International Criminal Court Elements of the Crimes 2000, Article 7(1)(g), 8(2)(b)(xxii) and 8(2)(e)(vi).
- 264.
- 265.
International Criminal Court Trial Chamber II, Prosecutor v Katanga and Ngudjolo Chui, Judgment Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 7 March 2014, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/07-3436, paras 975-976.
- 266.
- 267.
- 268.
Dottridge 2017, pp. 67–68.
- 269.
Further see Mahmood 2019, pp. 39–40.
- 270.
- 271.
- 272.
Rome Statute, Article 9.
- 273.
Allain 2013, p. 22. In this sense, the argument by Pocar that “human Trafficking should be qualified as a crime against humanity, both under general international law and the Statute of the ICC‘ because enslavement or slavery is its characteristic feature does not reflect the actual legal position of the Rome Statute nor the actual understanding of trafficking in persons under the TIP Protocol 2000 and international law in general, Pocar 2007, p. 10.
- 274.
Triffterer and Ambos 2016, p. 261.
- 275.
Allain 2009d, p. 304.
- 276.
- 277.
UNGA 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UNGA Res. 217A(III) (1948), adopted 10 December 1948, Article 4; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (1966), entered into force 23 March 1976, Article 8(2); Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, opened for signature 4 November 1950, 213 UNTS 221 (1950), entered into force 3 September 1953, Article 4(1); American Convention on Human Rights, opened for signature 22 November 1969, 1144 UNTS 123 (1969), entered into force 18 July 1978, Article 6(1).
- 278.
TIP Protocol 2000, Article 3(a).
- 279.
CoE Anti-Trafficking Convention 2005, Article 4(a). See as well Thomson 2016, p. 64.
- 280.
ASEAN Convention 2015, Article 2(a).
- 281.
- 282.
- 283.
Allain 2012, pp. 27–28.
- 284.
Quirk 2006, p. 565.
- 285.
Allain 2012, pp. 27–28.
- 286.
- 287.
UNODC Travaux Préparatoires 2006, p. 342.
- 288.
UNODC Travaux Préparatoires 2006, p. 344.
- 289.
- 290.
UNODC 2015, pp. 14–15; Declaration of Istanbul on Organ Trafficking and Transplant Tourism 2008, pp. 3375–3376.
- 291.
Council of Europe/United Nations Study 2009, p. 12.
- 292.
UNGA 2013, para 20.
- 293.
As it will be shown later on in this study, Tanzania takes this approach under the 2008 Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act.
- 294.
Council of Europe Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, opened for signature 4 April 1997, CETS No. 164 (1997), entered into force 1 December 1999, Article 21; Additional Protocol to the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine Concerning Transplantation of Organs and Tissues of Human Origins, opened for signature 24 January 2002, CETS No. 186 (2002), entered into force 1 May 2006, Article 22. See also OSCE Office of the Special Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings 2013, p. 14.
- 295.
- 296.
The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, opened for signature 25 May 2000, 2171 UNTS 227 (2000), entered into force 18 January 2002.
- 297.
Article 3(b).
- 298.
- 299.
Council of Europe/United Nations Study 2009, pp. 80–81.
- 300.
- 301.
- 302.
- 303.
Working Group on Trafficking in Persons 2011, paras 10–15.
- 304.
UNODC 2015, pp. 15–16.
- 305.
- 306.
“Ratification Status”, https://treaties.un.org/pages/viewdetails.aspx?src=ind&mtdsg_no=xviii-12-a&chapter=18&lang=en. Accessed 20 August 2018.
- 307.
“Ratification Status”, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=XVIII-12-b&chapter=18&lang=en. Accessed 20 August 2018. For some reasons as to why a lesser number of states have ratified the Migrant Smuggling Protocol 2000 as compared to the TIP Protocol 2000, see Schloenhardt and Macdonald 2017, pp. 18–36.
- 308.
- 309.
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Kahimba, N.F. (2021). Understanding Trafficking in Persons. In: Human Trafficking Under International and Tanzanian Law. International Criminal Justice Series, vol 27. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-435-8_2
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