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Where Do We Go from Here? EU Relations with the Eastern Partnership Avant Garde

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The Evolving Nature of EU External Relations Law

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Abstract

This chapter looks at the relations between the European Union and the Eastern Partnership avant garde, that is Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova. In the course of the last ten years these three countries negotiated and signed very ambitious Association Agreements, which promise enhanced bilateral relations but without an explicit offer of EU membership on the horizon. At the same time, the signals coming from Kyiv, Tbilisi and (occasionally) Chișinău indicate that the choice of a pro-EU trajectory is there to stay. With this in mind the analysis looks at the heart of the Association Agreements, that is, law approximation and, in broader terms, the way in which the association is developing. The author argues that the EU is reaching a point when, as in any close relationship, it will have to make its future intentions clear. Towards the end of the chapter a few suggestions as to the next steps forward are made. The easiest, and the most do-able option is to regularly update the lists of the EU acquis pencilled in for approximation. Furthermore, the relations could be upgraded by a reformed institutional framework, potentially modelled on the draft EU-Swiss Institutional Agreement and the EU-UK Withdrawal Agreement. The parties may also wish to explore additional areas of co-operation, going beyond the current parameters of the Association Agreements. The EU also needs to be prepared that at some point in the future applications for membership may arrive.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Melo Araujo 2016.

  2. 2.

    Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and its Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part, opened for signature 21 March 2014, OJ L 161/3–2137 (entered into force 1 September 2017) (EU-Ukraine AA). See further Emerson and Movchan 2018; Van Der Loo 2016.

  3. 3.

    Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and Georgia, of the other part, opened for signature 27 June 2014, OJ L 261/4 (entered into force 1 July 2016) (EU-Georgia AA). See further Emerson and Kovziridze 2018.

  4. 4.

    Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Moldova, of the other part, opened for signature 27 June 2014, OJ L 260/4 (entered into force 1 July 2016), (EU-Moldova AA). See further Emerson and Cenuşa 2018.

  5. 5.

    See, inter alia, European Commission, Association Implementation Report on Ukraine, SWD (2019) 433 final; European Commission, Association Implementation Report on Georgia, SWD (2020) 30 final; European Commission, Association Implementation Report on Moldova, SWD (2019) 325 final.

  6. 6.

    See Buschle and Talus 2015; Buschle 2016; Buschle and Karova 2019; Blockmans and Van Vooren 2012.

  7. 7.

    Common Aviation Area Agreement between the European Union and its Member States and the Republic of Moldova, opened for signature 26 June 2012, OJ L 292/3 (entered into force (provisionally) 26 June 2012); Common Aviation Area Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Georgia, of the other part, opened for signature 2 December 2010, OJ L 321/3 (entered into force 18 June 2019).

  8. 8.

    See Łazowski 2021a.

  9. 9.

    See diplomatically-framed allusions to the European perspective in preambles to all three Association Agreements.

  10. 10.

    The only exception is Moldova, which has been in permanent political turmoil, with pro-Russia and pro-EU parties swinging in regular intervals to the left and to the right. See further Nizhnikau 2019.

  11. 11.

    European Commission and High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Eastern Partnership policy beyond 2020. Reinforcing Resilience-an Eastern Partnership that delivers for all, JOIN (2020) 7 final. For a commentary, see Emerson et al. 2020. An inventory of previous ENP/EaP policy papers is available in Gstöhl 2016a, p. 7.

  12. 12.

    See Van der Loo 2016, pp. 100–164.

  13. 13.

    See Emerson and Kostanyan 2013; Vilpišauskas 2016. It is notable that Armenia eventually signed a pruned agreement with the EU. See Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Armenia, of the other part, opened for signature 20 November 2017, OJ L 23/4 (entered into force (provisionally) 20 November 2017).

  14. 14.

    For a comparative analysis of frozen conflicts in this region and troubles in the Western Balkans, see Brsakoska Bazerkoska 2016.

  15. 15.

    This was amplified by the shenanigans associated with ratification of the CETA. See further Wessel and Van der Loo 2017.

  16. 16.

    Van der Loo 2019, p. 115.

  17. 17.

    Agreement on the European Economic Area, opened for signature 2 May 1992, OJ L 1/3–522 (entered into force 1 January 1994). See further Arnesen et al. 2018; Baudenbacher 2015.

  18. 18.

    The Association Agreements contain a plethora of law approximation clauses. See, for instance, EU-Georgia AA, above n. 3, Article 47 (approximation with technical regulations), Article 55 (gradual with sanitary and phytosanitary, animal welfare and other legislative measures), Article 75 (approximation with customs acquis), Article 103 (gradual approximation with services legislation), Article 113 (approximation with acquis on electronic communication), Article 122 (approximation in the area of financial services), Article 126 (approximation with transport legislation), Articles 141(2), 145–146 (approximation with EU public procurement legislation), Articles 417–419 (dynamic approximation).

  19. 19.

    This applies to SPS, where the lists of acquis pencilled in for approximation have been developed in tailor-made action plans.

  20. 20.

    Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, of the other part, opened for signature 9 April 2001, OJ L 84/1 (entered into force 1 April 2004); Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Albania, of the other part, opened for signature 12 June 2006, OJ L 107/116 (entered into force 1 April 2009); Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Montenegro, of the other part, opened for signature 15 October 2007, OJ L 108/3 (entered into force 1 May 2010); Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Serbia, of the other part, opened for signature 29 April 2008, OJ L 278/14 (entered into force 1 September 2013); Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, of the other part, opened for signature 16 June 2008, OJ L 164/2 (entered into force 1 June 2015); Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community, of the one part, and Kosovo*, of the other part, opened for signature 27 October 2015, OJ L 71/3 (entered into force 1 April 2016). See further on this family of association agreements Phinnemore 2003.

  21. 21.

    Łazowski and Blockmans 2014.

  22. 22.

    As the first step of the EU accession process the European Commission presents so called avis—an opinion on candidates’ compliance with the EU entry criteria. As the cases of Turkey and Albania prove, it is not a fait accompli. See Commission of the European Communities. Commission opinion on Turkey’s request for accession to the Community, SEC (89) 2290 final; Commission Opinion on Albania’s application for membership of the European Union, SEC (2010) 1335.

  23. 23.

    See further Refit EU 2018.

  24. 24.

    See, for instance, EU-Georgia AA, above n. 3, Article 274(1), EU-Moldova AA, above n. 4, Article 410(1).

  25. 25.

    EU-Ukraine AA, above n. 2, Article 463(3): EU-Georgia AA, above n. 3, Article 418; EU-Moldova AA, above n. 4, Article 449.

  26. 26.

    Wernø Holter 2017.

  27. 27.

    Van der Loo and Akhvlediani 2020.

  28. 28.

    Council Directive 90/314/EEC of 13 June 1990 on package travel, package holidays and package tours [1990] OJ L 158/59.

  29. 29.

    Directive (EU) 2015/2302 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015 on package travel and linked travel arrangements, amending Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 and Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directive 90/314/EEC [2015] OJ L 326/1.

  30. 30.

    See, inter alia, Saurugger and Terpan 2016; Sindbjerg and Martinsen 2015; Rosas et al. 2013.

  31. 31.

    See, however, Rodin and Perišin 2015; Łazowski 2020; Petrov and Kalinichenko 2011.

  32. 32.

    See EU-Ukraine AA, above n. 2, Articles 153, 264; EU-Georgia AA, above n. 3, Article 146; EU-Moldova AA, above n. 4, Articles 273, 340.

  33. 33.

    See, inter alia, a manual on the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice relevant for the Ukrainian authorities: Association4U 2018.

  34. 34.

    See further Khvorostankina 2014; Petrov 2014; Gabrichidze 2014. In this respect, the procedures and institutions share similarities with institutional set-ups for accession to the European Union. See, for instance, Łazowski and Vlašić Feketija 2014.

  35. 35.

    See further Franco 2016.

  36. 36.

    Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, Wider Europe—Neighbourhood: A New Framework for Relations with our Eastern and Southern Neighbours, COM (2003) 104 final.

  37. 37.

    Van Vooren 2012; Gstöhl 2016b; Whitmans and Wolf 2010.

  38. 38.

    Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Kingdom of Morocco, of the other part, opened for signature 26 February 1996, OJ L 70/2 (entered into force 1 March 2000); Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Lebanon, of the other part, opened for signature 17 June 2002, OJ L 143/2 (entered into force 1 April 2006); Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, of the other part, opened for signature 22 April 2002, OJ L 265/2 (entered into force 1 September 2005); Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Arab Republic of Egypt, of the other part, opened for signature 25 June 2001, OJ L 304/39 (entered into force 1 June 2004); Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, of the other part, opened for signature 24 November 1997, OJ L 129/3 (entered into force 1 May 2002); Euro-Mediterranean Interim Association Agreement on trade and cooperation between the European Community, of the one part, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) for the benefit of the Palestinian Authority of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, of the other part, opened for signature 24 February 1997, OJ L 187/3 (entered into force 1 July 1997); Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the State of Israel, of the other part, opened for signature 20 November 1995, OJ L 147/3 (entered into force 1 June 2000); Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Tunisia, of the other part, opened for signature 17 May 1995, OJ L 97/2 (entered into force 1 March 1998).

  39. 39.

    Agreement on partnership and cooperation establishing a partnership between the European Communities and their Member States and the Russian Federation, opened for signature 24 June 1994, OJ L 327/3 (entered into force 1 December 1997); Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States and the Republic of Moldova, opened for signature 28 November 1994, OJ L 181/3 (entered into force 1 July 1998); Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States and the Republic of Georgia, opened for signature 22 April 1996, OJ L 205/3 (entered into force 1 July 1999); Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States and Ukraine, opened for signature 14 June 1994, OJ L 49/3 (entered into force 1 March 1998); Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States and the Republic of Kazakhstan, opened for signature 23 January 1995, OJ 196/3 (entered into force 1 July 1999); Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Azerbaijan, of the other part, opened for signature 22 April 1996, OJ L 246/3 (entered into force 1 July 1999); Partnership and Cooperation Agreement establishing a partnership between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Kyrgyz Republic, of the other part, opened for signature 9 February 1995, OJ L 196/48 (entered into force 1 July 1999); Partnership and Cooperation Agreement establishing a partnership between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Uzbekistan, of the other part, opened for signature 21 June 1996, OJ L 229/3 (entered into force 1 July 1999); Partnership and Cooperation Agreement establishing a partnership between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Tajikistan, of the other part, opened for signature 11 October 2004, OJ L 350/3 (entered into force 1 January 2010). Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Armenia, opened for signature 22 April 1996, OJ L 293/3 (entered into force 1 July 1999).

  40. 40.

    See further Ghazaryan 2018.

  41. 41.

    See further, inter alia, Poli 2016; Ghazaryan 2014.

  42. 42.

    See further Şemşit 2016.

  43. 43.

    Recommendation No 1/2017 of the EU-Republic of Moldova Association Council of 4 August 2017 on the EU-Republic of Moldova Association Agenda [2017] OJ L 215/3.

  44. 44.

    Recommendation No 1/2007 of the EU-Georgia Association Council on the EU-Georgia Association Agenda [2017] L 344/65.

  45. 45.

    In the current EU Financial Framework the funds are available qua the European Neighbourhood Instrument. See Regulation (EU) No 232/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 2014 establishing a European Neighbourhood Instrument [2014] OJ L 77/27.

  46. 46.

    Decision (EU) 2020/701 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 May 2020 on providing macro‐financial assistance to enlargement and neighbourhood partners in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic [2020] OJ L 165/31.

  47. 47.

    See Sadurski 2019.

  48. 48.

    See Blockmans 2017.

  49. 49.

    Joint Statement by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Georgia, the Republic of Moldova and Ukraine on the Future of Eastern Partnership (5 December 2019, Bratislava), available at: https://3dcftas.eu/library/documents/joint-statement-by-the-ministers-of-foreign-affairs-of-georgia,-the-republic-of-moldova-and-ukraine-on-the-future-of-eastern-partnership.

  50. 50.

    Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia 2019.

  51. 51.

    Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Poland, of the other part, opened for signature 16 December 1991, OJ L 348/2 (entered into force 1 February 1994); Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Hungary, of the other part, opened for signature 16 December 1991, OJ L 347/2 (entered into force 1 February 1994); Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Czech Republic, of the other part, opened for signature 4 October 1993, OJ L 360/2 (entered into force 1 February 1995); Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Slovak Republic, of the other part, opened for signature 4 October 1993, OJ L 359/2 (entered into force 1 February 1995); Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and Romania, of the other part, 1 February 1993, OJ L 357/2 (entered into force 1 February 1995); Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Bulgaria, of the other part, opened for signature 8 March 1993, OJ L 358/3 (entered into force 1 February 1995); Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Lithuania, of the other part, opened for signature 12 June 1995, OJ L 51/3 (entered into force 1 February 1998); Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Latvia, of the other part, opened for signature 12 June 1995, OJ L 26/3 (entered into force 1 February 1998); Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Estonia, of the other part, opened for signature 12 June 1995, OJ L 68/3 (entered into force 1 February 1998); Europe Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, acting within the framework of the European Union, of the one part, and the Republic of Slovenia, of the other part, opened for signature 10 June 1996, OJ L 51/3 (entered into force 1 February 1999). See further Ott and Inglis 2002.

  52. 52.

    Agreement Creating an Association between the European Economic Community and Turkey, opened for signature 12 September 1963, OJ L 361/29 (entered into force 1 December 1964). See further Rogers 2000; Szigetvári 2016; Terzi 2019.

  53. 53.

    As was the case with European Agreements with Central and Eastern European countries. See Inglis 2000.

  54. 54.

    Van der Loo and Akhvlediani 2020, pp. 9–10.

  55. 55.

    Kaddous 2019; Łazowski 2021b.

  56. 56.

    Agreement on the withdrawal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community, opened for signature 24 January 2020, OJ C 384I (entered into force 1 February 2020); See further Dougan 2020; Łazowski 2021c.

  57. 57.

    On the current institutional set-up, see Van Der Loo 2019.

  58. 58.

    See Frommelt 2016.

  59. 59.

    This was mentioned en passant by the European Commission in one of its ENP Strategy Papers, however this idea failed to take off properly and skipped in the subsequent ENP papers. See Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on Strengthening of the European Neighbourhood Policy, COM (2006) 726 final, p. 5.

  60. 60.

    See Baur 2016.

  61. 61.

    See De Witte et al. 2017.

  62. 62.

    On the mechanics of treaty revisions see, inter alia, De Witte 2011.

  63. 63.

    Manners 2010.

  64. 64.

    See Report on a European Parliament recommendation to the Council, the Commission and the Vice-President of the Commission/High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy on the Eastern Partnership, in the run-up to the June 2020 Summit, A9-0112/2020.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Westminster, London, UK

    A. Łazowski

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  1. A. Łazowski
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Editors and Affiliations

  1. EU Legal—Centre for European and International Law, The Hague, The Netherlands

    W. Th. Douma

  2. Amsterdam Centre for European Law and Governance, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    C. Eckes

  3. Ghent European Law Institute (GELI), Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

    P. Van Elsuwege

  4. T.M.C. Asser Institute, The Hague, The Netherlands

    E. Kassoti

  5. Faculty of Law, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

    A. Ott

  6. Faculty of Law, Groningen University, Groningen, The Netherlands

    R. A. Wessel

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Łazowski, A. (2021). Where Do We Go from Here? EU Relations with the Eastern Partnership Avant Garde. In: Douma, W.T., Eckes, C., Van Elsuwege, P., Kassoti, E., Ott, A., Wessel, R.A. (eds) The Evolving Nature of EU External Relations Law. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-423-5_10

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