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Trafficking in Hazardous Wastes (Article 28L) and Illicit Exploitation of Natural Resources (Article 28Lbis)

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The African Criminal Court

Part of the book series: International Criminal Justice Series ((ICJS,volume 10))

Abstract

Pollution committed on a vast scale has been a problem for Africa for a long time. Frequently, it was European states which used Africa as their “trash bin”. The chapter gives an overview of the international instruments that tackle this issue, and shows that, so far, the task of criminalizing serious acts of pollution has been left to the domestic legislator. Then, Article 28L and Article 28Lbis of the Malabo Protocol (Annex) will be analyzed. Under these provisions, trafficking in hazardous wastes and illicit exploitation of natural resources, which have a devastating effect on the environment and the economy in Africa, are directly criminalized. The author welcomes this as a contribution to the development of international law in principle. However, in his view, the crimes in the Annex to the Malabo Protocol have some problematic features, in particular insofar as they lead to a too far-reaching criminalization. He argues that criminalization should rather take place at the domestic level and not at the international level.

All internet sources in this chapter were last visited on 30 June 2016.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Radkau 2000, pp. 306–313.

  2. 2.

    For details see Werle and Jeßberger 2014, marg. numbers 1323 et seq.

  3. 3.

    Arnold 2007, Article 8 para 60.

  4. 4.

    For example, Asada 2000, p. 403, 418.

  5. 5.

    See Reichart 1999, pp. 526–568; Tomuschat 2001, pp. 105–124.

  6. 6.

    For details see Heger 2009, pp. 55 et seq.

  7. 7.

    On the situation before the harmonization in the EU Member States, see Faure and Heine 2000, p. 9 et seq. and Criminal Penalties in EU Member States’ Environmental Law, Maastricht, 2002 (www.eurocbc.org/Environmental_crime_survey_final_report.pdf).

  8. 8.

    European Treaty Series (ETS) No. 172.

  9. 9.

    OJ C 019, 23/01/1992, pp. 01–15.

  10. 10.

    OJ C 039, 11/02/2000, pp. 04–07.

  11. 11.

    OJ 180 E, 26/06/2001, pp. 238–243.

  12. 12.

    OJ L 029, 05/02/2003, pp. 55–58; see Faure 2004, pp. 18–29.

  13. 13.

    Commission v. Council, Case C-176/03, ECR [2005] I-07879.

  14. 14.

    OJ L 328 06/12/2008, pp. 28–37.

  15. 15.

    For the example of Germany, see Heger 2012, pp. 211–223.

  16. 16.

    Section § 326: “§ 1 Whosoever unlawfully, outside a facility authorized therefor or in substantial deviation from the proscribed or authorized procedure, collects, ships, treats, utilizes, stores, dumps, discharges, disposes of or trades in, brokers or otherwise commercializes waste which

    1. 1.

      contains or can generate poisons or carriers of diseases which are dangerous to the public and are communicable to persons or animals;

    2. 2.

      is carcinogenic in humans, has harmful reproductive effects or can cause alterations in the genetic make-up;

    3. 3.

      is prone to explode, spontaneously combustible, or of more than merely minor radioactive quality; or

    4. 4.

      because of its nature, composition or quantity is capable of:

      1. (a)

        polluting or otherwise negatively and permanently altering a body of water, the air or the soil or

      2. (b)

        endangering an existing population of animals or plants

        shall be liable to imprisonment not exceeding five years or a fine.

        § 2 Whosoever ships into, out of or through the Federal Republic of Germany,

    1. 1.

      waste in significant amounts as defined by Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 June 2006 on shipments of waste (OJ L 190, 12.7.2006,1, L 318, 28.11.2008, 15), last amended by Regulation (EU) No 135/2012 (OJ L 46, 17.11.2012, 30), provided it is a case of illegal shipment under Article 2 No 35 of Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006, or

    2. 2.

      other waste contrary to a prohibition or without the required permit within the meaning of subsection (1) above,

      shall incur the same penalty.”

  17. 17.

    Friedrich Schiller, Wallenstein, Die Piccolomini: “Der Krieg ernährt den Krieg. Gehen Bauern drauf, Ei, so gewinnt der Kaiser mehr Soldaten”.

  18. 18.

    Münkler 2002, pp. 48–57.

  19. 19.

    Broomhall 2004, p. 163, 166.

  20. 20.

    See wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamako_Convention; 1/6/2016).

  21. 21.

    http://eeas.europa.eu/top_stories/2015/270315_conflict_minerals_en.htm: The International Task Force on Illegal Exploitation of and Trade in Natural Resources in the Great Lakes Region (ITF)—originally launched by the EU in 2009—concludes inter alia:

    “1.1.1 What are the main conclusions of the conference?

    More than armed groups, criminal networks are now involved in illegal exploitation and trade in natural resources in the Great Lakes and their reach is regional and international. After years of weakened state authority in the eastern DRC, insurgency is predominantly economically motivated.

    • According to some estimates, illicit natural resources exploitation in eastern DRC is worth USD 1.25 billion per year. There is no definitive assessment of how much of this sum reaches transnational organized criminal groups, but it is certainly in the order of hundreds of millions of dollars.  Armed groups probably see only a small percentage of the profits.

    • Organized crime financing is very complex, considering exploitation of gold, timber, charcoal, tin, tungsten and tantalum as well as local taxation schemes and wildlife.

    • Response must include actions against impunity, improved governance, reforming security forces, managing natural resources and promoting livelihood programmes.

    • Continued support for the ICGLR "Regional Certification Mechanism" is justified—but needs more attention to strengthening coordination and building trust from business.

    • The ITF should continue to steer stronger diplomatic engagement: by gathering those active in fighting illegal exploitation and trade in the region, the Task Force is a valuable platform to maximize efforts and avoid overlapping initiatives.”

  22. 22.

    See the chapter by Meloni in this book.

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Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank his research assistant, Ms. Tabea Hill, for her help with the English text of the manuscript and his student assistant, Ms. Sophie Straßer, for her help with the references.

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  1. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

    Martin Heger

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  1. Faculty of Law, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

    Gerhard Werle

  2. Faculty of Law, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

    Moritz Vormbaum

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Heger, M. (2017). Trafficking in Hazardous Wastes (Article 28L) and Illicit Exploitation of Natural Resources (Article 28Lbis). In: Werle, G., Vormbaum, M. (eds) The African Criminal Court. International Criminal Justice Series, vol 10. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-150-0_8

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-150-0_8

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