Abstract
Vegetational history can help us to predict future environments by providing data for testing AGCMs, for indicating the vegetational response to rapid warming and changing CO2 concentrations, and for mathematical modelling of vegetation. Most of the data are palynological, and there are well over 100 pollen diagrams from tropical regions. Maps are presented showing summarized pollen diagrams from the lowlands of South-East Asia and the West Pacific, Tropical Latin America and Tropical Africa. In all these regions there is some evidence suggesting that at the LGM lowland forests were somewhat restricted in area and included montane elements. This is consistent with cooler and drier climate at the LGM. From the montane and lowland areas of these three regions, the pollen evidence is summarized in altitudinal diagrams. These suggest considerable depression of altitudinal zones at the LGM, suggesting temperatures c. 5–10 °C cooler than now. These results conflict with earlier oxygen isotope data from marine foraminifera, but do not conflict with more recent oxygen isotope measurements from tropical corals. It is also suggested that altitudinal movements may be partly controlled by CO2 concentration and ultraviolet light.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Absy, M. L., Cleef, A., Fournier, M., Martin, L., Servant, M., Siffeddine, A., Ferreira da Silva, M., Soubies, F., Suguio, K., Tureq, B., and van der Hammen, T.: 1991, ‘Mise en évidence de quatre phases d’ouverture de la forêt dense dans le sud-est de l’Amazonie au cours des 60,000 dernières années’, Première comparaison avec d’autres régions tropicales, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sei. 312, Serie II, Paris, 673–678.
Absy, M. and van der Hammen, T.: 1976, ‘Some Palaeoecological Data from Rondonia, Southern Part of the Amazon Basin’, Acta Amazonica 6, 293–299.
Barnola, J. M., Raynaud, D., Korotkevich, Y. S., and Lorius, C.: 1987, ‘Vostok Ice Core Provides 160,000-year Record of Atmospheric C02’, Nature 329, 408^14.
Barmawidjaja, D. M., de Jong, A. F. M., van der Borg, K., van der Kaars, W. A., and Zachariasse, W. J.: 1989, ‘Kau Bay, Halmahera, a Late Quaternary Palaeoenvironmental Record of a Poorly Ventilated Basin’, Neth. J. Sea Res. 24, 591–605.
Bartlett, A. S. and Barghoorn, E. S.: 1973, ‘Phytogeographic History of the Isthmus of Panama during the Past 12,000 Years (A History of Vegetation, Climate and Sea-Level Change)’, in Graham, A. (ed.), Vegetation and Vegetational History of Northern Latin America, a Symposium, Elsevier, New York, pp. 203–299.
Bonnefille, R. and Riollet, G.: 1988, ‘The Kashiru Pollen Sequence (Burundi). Palaeoclimatic Implications for the Last 40,000 Years B.P. in Tropical Africa’, Quat. Res. 30, 19–35.
Bonnefille R., Roeland, J. C. and Guiot, J.: 1990, ‘Temperature and Rainfall Estimates for the Past 40,000 Years in Equatorial Africa’, Nature 346, 347–349.
Bradbury, J. P., Leyden, B., Salgado-Labouriau, M. L., Lewis, W. M., Schubert, C., Binford, M. W., Frey, D. G., Whitehead, D. R., and Weibezahn, F. H.: 1981, ‘Late Quaternary Environmental History of Lake Valencia, Venezuela’, Science 214, 1299–1305.
Brenac, P.: 1988, ‘Evolution de la végétation et du climat dans l’Ouest Cameroun entre 25,000 et 11,000 ans B. P. Actes Xème Symposium Ass. Palynologues Langue Française’, Trav. Sect. Sei. Tech., Inst. Francais Pondichéry 25, 91–103.
Bush, M. B.: 1994, ‘Amazonian Speciation: A Necessarily Complex Model’, J. Biogeogr. 21, 5–17.
Bush, M. B., Piperno, D. R., Colinvaux, C. A., De Oliviera, P. E., Krissek, L. A., Miller, M. C., and Rowe, W. L.: 1992, ‘A 14,300-yr Palaeoecological Profile of a Lowland Tropical Lake in Panama,’ Ecol. Monogr. 62, 251–275.
Caratini, C. and Tissot, C.: 1985, ‘Le Sondage Misedor: étude Palynologique. Études de Geographie Tropicale’, No. 3, Centre d’études de géographie tropicale, Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Domaine Universitaire de Bordeaux, p. 49 + 5 plates.
CLIMAP: 1976, ‘The Surface of the Ice-Age Earth’, Science 191, 1131–1137.
CLIMAP: 1981, ‘Seasonal Reconstructions of the Earth’s Surface at the Last Glacial Maximum’, Geol. Soc. Amer. Map Chart Series MC-36.
Coetzee, J. A.: 1964, ‘Evidence for a Considerable Depression of the Vegetation Belts during the Upper Pleistocene on the East African Mountains’, Nature 204, 564–566.
Coetzee, J. A.: 1967, ‘Pollen Analytical Studies in East and Southern Africa’, Palaeoecol. Af. Surround. Isles Antarct. Ill, 1–146.
COHMAP: 1988, ‘Climatic Changes of the Last 18,000 Years: Observations and Model Simulations’, Science 241, 1043–1052.
Cole, A. O.: 1996, ‘A Dynamical Systems Framework for Modelling Plant Community Organization’, unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Massey University, New Zealand, p. 568.
Colinvaux, P. A.: 1989, ‘Ice-age Amazon revisited’, Nature 340, 188–189.
Colinvaux, P. A., Liu, K-B., De Oliveira, P., Bush, M. B., Miller, M. C., and Kannan, M. S.: 1996, ‘Temperature Depression in the Lowland Tropics in Glacial Times’, Clim. Change 32, 19–33.
Dam, M. A. C.: 1994, ‘The Late Quaternary Evolution of the Bandung Basin, West-Java, Indonesia’, Thesis, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, p. 252 + maps.
Elenga, H., Schwartz, D., and Vincens, A.: 1992, ‘Changements climatiques et action anthropique sur le littoral congolais au cours de l’Holocène’. Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr. 163, 83–90.
Elenga, H., Schwartz, D., and Vincens, A.: 1994a, ‘Pollen Evidence of Late Quaternary Vegetation and Inferred Climate Changes in Congo’, Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 109, 345–356.
Elenga, H., Vincens, A., and Schwartz, D.: 1994b, ‘Présence d’elements forestiers montagnards sur les Plateaux Batéké (Congo) au Pléistocène supérieur: nouvelles données palynologiques’, Palaeoecol. Afr. 22, 239–252.
Flenley, J. R.: 1972, ‘Evidence of Quaternary Vegetational Change in New Guinea’, in Ashton, P. and Ashton, M. (eds.), The Quaternary Era in Malesia. Transactions of the Second Aberdeen-Hull Symposium on Malesian Ecology. University of Hull, Department of Geography, Miscellaneous Series No. 13, pp. 99–109
Flenley, J. R.: 1979, The Equatorial Rain Forest: A Geological History, Butterworths, London, p. 162.
Flenley, J. R.: 1993a, ‘The Origins of Diversity in Tropical Rain Forests’, Trends Ecol. Evol. 8, 119–120.
Flenley, J. R.: 1993b, ‘Cloud Forest, The Massenerhebung Effect, and Ultraviolet Insolation’, in Hamilton, L. S., Juvik, J. O., and Scatena, F. M. (eds.), Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Proceedings of an International Symposium, East-West Center, Honolulu, pp. 94–96.
Flenley, J. R.: 1993c, ‘Two Problems of the Late Quaternary in the Sunda-Sahul Region and a Possible Solution’, in Proc. International Symposium on Global Change (IGBP), Waseda University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan, 27–29 March 1992, pp. 614–623.
Garrett-Jones, S. E.: 1979, ‘Holocene Vegetation and Lake Sedimentation in the Markham Valley, Papua New Guinea’, unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Australian National University, Canberra, p. 420.
Giresse, P., Maley, J., and Brenac, P.: 1994, ‘Late Quaternary Palaeoenvironments in the Lake Barombi-Mbo (West Cameroon) Deduced from Pollen and Carbon Isotopes of Organic Matter’, PalaeogeogrPalaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 107, 65–78.
Gonzalez, E., van der Hammen, T., and Flint, R. F.: 1966, ‘Late Quaternary Glacial and Vegetational Sequence in Valle de Lagunillas, Sierra Nevada del Cocuy, Colombia’, Leid. Geol. Meded. 32, 157–182.
Guilderson, T. P., Fairbanks, R. G., and Rubenstone, J. L.: 1994, ‘Tropical Temperature Variations since 20,000 Years Ago: Modulating Interhemispheric Climate Change’, Science 263, 663–665.
Haffer, J.: 1969, ‘Speciation in Amazonian Forest Birds’, Science 165, 131–137.
Hamilton, A. C.: 1972, ‘The Interpretation of Pollen Diagrams from Highland Uganda’, Palaeoecol. Af Surround. Isles Antarct. 7, 45–149.
Hamilton, A. C.: 1982, Environmental History of East Africa, Academic Press, London, p. 328.
Hamilton, A. C. and Perrott, A.: 1978, ‘Date of Deglacierisation of Mount Elgon’, Nature 273, 49.
Hamilton, A. C., Taylor, D., and Vogel, J. C.: 1986, ‘Early Forest Clearance and Environmental Degradation in South-West Uganda’, Nature 320, 164–167.
Hamilton, A. C., Taylor, D., and Vogel, J. C.: 1989, ‘Neolithic Forest Clearance at Ahakegyezi, Western Uganda’, in Mahaney, W. G. (ed.), Quaternary and Environmental Research on East African Mountains, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 435–463.
Harrison, S. P. and Dodson, J.: 1993, ‘Climates of Australia and New Guinea since 18,000 yr B.P.’, in Wright H. E., Jr., Kutzbach, J. E., Webb III, T., Ruddiman, W. F., Street-Perrott, F. A., and Bartlein, P. J. (eds.), Global Climates since the Last Glacial Maximum, Univ. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 265–293.
Hooghiemstra, H.: 1984 Vegetational and Climatic History of the High Plain of Bogota, Colombia: A Continuous Record of the Last 3. 5 Million Years, Cramer, Liechtenstein, p. 368.
Hooghiemstra, H. and van der Hammen, T. 1993, ‘Late Quaternary Vegetation History and Pale-oecology of Laguna Pedro Palo (Subandean Forest Belt, Eastern Cordillera, Colombia)’, Rev. Palaeobotan. Palynol. 77, 235–262.
Hope, G. S.: 1976, ‘The Vegetational History of Mt Wilhelm, Papua New Guinea’, J. Ecol. 64, 627–663.
Hope, G. and Tulip, J.: 1994, ‘A Long Vegetation History from Lowland Irian Jaya, Indonesia’, Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 109, 385–398.
Jolly, D., Bonnefille, R., and Roux, M.: 1994, ‘Numerical Interpretation of a High Resolution Holocene Pollen Record from Burundi’, Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 109, 357–370.
Kendall, R. L.: 1969, ‘An Ecological History of the Lake Victoria Basin’, Ecol. Monogr. 39, 121–176.
Kershaw, A. P.: 1974, ‘A Long Continuous Pollen Sequence from North-Eastern Australia’, Nature 251, 222–223.
Kershaw, A. P.: 1975, ‘Late Quaternary Vegetation and Climate in North-Eastern Australia’, Roy. Soc. N.Z. Bull 13, 181–187.
Kershaw, A. P.: 1976, ‘A Late Pleistocene and Holocene Pollen Diagram from Lynch’s Crater, North- Eastern Queensland, Australia’, New Phytologist 77, 649–498.
Kershaw, A. P.: 1978, ‘Record of the Last Interglacial-Glacial Cycle from Northeastern Queensland’, Nature 212, 159–161.
Kershaw, A. P.: 1986, ‘The Last Two Glacial-Interglacial Cycles from Northeastern Australia: Implications for Climatic Change and Aboriginal Burning’, Nature 322, 47–49.
Kershaw, A. P.: 1988, ‘Australasia’ in Huntley, B. and Webb III, T. (eds.), Vegetation History, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 237–306.
Kirch, P. V., Flenley, J. R., and Steadman, D. W.: 1991, ‘A Radiocarbon Chronology for Human Induced Environmental Change on Mangaia, Southern Cook Islands, Polynesia’, Radiocarbon 33, 317–328.
Kirch, P. V., Flenley, J. R., Steadman, D. W., Lamont, F., and Dawson, S.: 1992, ‘Ancient Environmental Degradation. Prehistoric Impacts on an Island Ecosystem: Mangaia, Central Polynesia’, Nat. Geogr. Res. Explor. 8, 166–179.
Kutzbach, J. E. and Guetter, P. J.: 1986, ‘The Influence of Changing Orbital Parameters and Surface Boundary Conditions on Climate Simulations for the Past 18,000 yrs’, J. Atmos. Sei. 43, 1726–1759.
Ledru, M. P.: 1993, ‘Late Quaternary Environmental and Climatic Changes in Central Brazil’, Quat. Res. 39, 90–98.
Ley den, B. W.: 1984, ‘Guatemalan Forest Synthesis After Pleistocene Aridity’, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sei. 81, 4856–4859.
Lézine, A. M.: 1981, ‘Le Lac Abiyata (Ethiopie) - Palynologie et paléoclimatologie du Quaternaire recent’, 2 vols., unpublished Thesis, Université de Bordeaux I, p. 125.
Lézine, A. M.: 1986, ‘Environnement et paléoenvironnement des niayes depuis 12,000 B. P.’, in Faure, H., Faure, L., and Diop, E. S. (eds.), Changements globaux en Afrique durant le Quaternaire: Passé-présent-futur, Travaux et documents 197, Editions de l’ORSTOM, Paris, pp. 261–263.
Lézine, A. M.: 1987, ‘Paléoenvironnements végétaux d’Afrique nord-tropicale depuis 12,000 B.P.’, unpublished Thesis, University of Aix-Marseille 2, p. 180.
Lézine, A. M. and Bonnefille, R.: 1982, ‘Diagramme Pollinique Holocène d’un sondage du lac Abiyata (Ethiopie, 7°42’ Nord)’, Pollen Spores 24, 463^80.
Lézine, A. M. and Casanova, J.: 1989, ‘Pollen and Hydrological Evidence for the Interpretation of Past Climates in Tropical West Africa during the Holocene’, Quat. Sei. Rev. 8, 45–55.
Livingstone, D. A.: 1967, ‘Postglacial Vegetation of the Ruwenzori Mountains in Equatorial Africa’, Ecol. Monogr. 37, 25–52.
Livingstone, D. A.: 1971, ‘A 22,000-year Old Pollen Record from the Plateau of Zambia’, Limnol. Oceanogr. 16, 349–356.
Livingstone, D. A.: 1975, ‘Late Quaternary Climatic Change in Africa’, Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 6, 249–280.
Livingstone, D. A.: 1982, ‘Quaternary Geography of Africa and the Refuge Theory’, in Prance, G. T. (ed.), Biological Diversification in the Tropics. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium of the Association for Tropical Biology, Chapter 28, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 523–536.
Maley, J.: 1991, ‘The African Rain Forest Vegetation and Palaeoenvironments during Late Quaternary’, Clim. Change 19, 79–98.
Maley, J. and Livingstone, D. A.: 1983, ‘Extension d’un élément montagnard dans le sud du Ghana (Afrique de l’Ouest) au Pléistocène et à l’Holocène inférieur: premières données polliniques’, Comptes rendus hebdomadaires de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series 7/296, 1287–1292.
Maley, J., Livingstone, D. A., Giresse, P., Thouveny, N., Brenac, P., Kelts, K., Kling, G., Stager, C., Haag, M., Fournier, M., Bandet, Y., Williamson, D., and Zogning, A: 1990, ‘Lithostratigraphy, Volcanism, Paleomagnetism and Palynology of Quaternary Lacustrine Deposits from Barombi- Mbo (West Cameroon): Preliminary Results’, J. Volcanol. Geothermal Res. 42, 319–335.
Maloney, B. K.: 1981, ‘A Pollen Diagram from Tao Sipinggan, A Lake Site in the Batak Highlands of North Sumatra, Indonesia’, Mod. Quat. Res. S. E. Asia 6, 57–66.
Manabe, S. and Broccoli, A. J.: 1985, ‘The Influence of Continental Ice Sheets on the Climate of an Ice Age’. J. Geophys. Res. 90, 2167–2190.
Markgraf, V.: 1993, ‘Climatic History of Central and South America since 18,000yrB. P.: Comparison of Pollen Records and Model Simulations’, in Wright Jr., H. E., Kutzbach, J. E., Webb III, T., Ruddiman, W. F., Street-Perrott F. A., and Bartlein, P. J. (eds.), Global Climates since the Last Glacial Maximum, Univ. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 357–385.
Morley, R. J.: 1982, ‘A Palaeoecological Interpretation of a 10,000 Year Pollen Record from Danau Padang, Central Sumatra, Indonesia’, J. Biogeogr. 9, 151–90.
Morrison, M. E. S.: 1968, ‘Vegetation and Climate in the Uplands of South-Western Uganda during the Late Pleistocene Period’, I. Muchoya Swamp, Kigezi District. J. Ecol. 56, 363–384.
Newsome, J. and Flenley, J. R.: 1988, ‘Late Quaternary Vegetational History of the Central Highlands of Sumatra’, II. Palaeopalynology and Vegetational History, J. Biogeogr. 15, 555–578.
Polhaupessy, A. A.: 1992, ‘Climatic Changes Based on Palynological Studies with Special Example of Ancient Bandung Lake Samples, Java’, in Global Environmental Changes with Special Reference to the Quaternary and recent time. Proceedings of the Fifth Quaternary Geology Workshop, GRDC-JICA, Bandung, 1991, pp. 69–76.
Powell, J. M., Kulunga, A., Möge, R., Pono, C., Zimike, F., and Golson, J.: 1975, ‘Agricultural Traditions of the Mount Hagen Area’, University of Papua New Guinea, Department of Geography, Occasional Paper, No. 12, p. 67 + 5 figs.
Richards, P. W.: 1964, The Tropical Rain Forest, An Ecological Study, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 450.
Salgado-Labouriau, M. L.: 1980, ‘A Pollen Diagram of the Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary of Lake Valencia, Venezuela’, Rev. Palaeobotan. Palynol. 30, 297–312.
Salgado-Labouriau, M. L.: 1982, ‘Climatic Change at the Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary’, in Prance, G. T. (ed.), Biological Diversification in the Tropics, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 74–77.
Salomons, J. B.: 1986, ‘Paleoecology of Volcanic Soils in the Colombian Central Cordillera (Parque Nacional Natural de los Nevadas)’, Quaternary Colombia 13, 1–212.
Servant, M., Maley, J., Turcq, B., Absy, M-L., Brenac, P., Fournier, M., and Ledru, M-P.: 1993, ‘Tropical Forest Changes during the Late Quaternary in African and South American Lowlands’, Global Plan. Change 7, 25–40.
Shackleton, N. J. and Opdyke, N. D.: 1976, ‘Oxygen-Isotope and Paleomagnetic Stratigraphy of Pacific Core V28–239, Late Pliocene to Latest Pleistocene’, Mem. Geol. Soc. Amer. 145, 449–464.
Southern, W.: 1986, ‘The Late Quaternary Environmental History of Fiji’, Ph.D. Thesis, ANU, Canberra, p. 284.
Sowunmi, M. A.: 1981a, ‘Aspects of Late Quaternary Vegetational Changes in West Africa’, J. Biogeogr. 8, 457–474.
Sowunmi, M. A.: 1981b, ‘Palynological Indications of Late Quaternary Environmental Changes in Nigeria’, Pollen Spores 23, 125–148.
Street-Perrott, A.: 1994, ‘Palaeo-Perspectives: Changes in Terrestrial Ecosystems’, Ambio 23, 37–43.
Street-Perrott, F. A. and Perrott, R. A.: 1993, ‘Holocene Vegetation, Lake Levels and Climate of Africa’, in Wright Jr., H. E., Kutzbach, J. E., Webb III, T., Ruddiman, W. F., Street-Perrott, F. A., and Bartlein, R. J. (eds.), Global Climates since the Last Glacial Maximum, Univ. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 318–356.
Stuijts, I.: 1984, ‘Palynological Study of Situ Bayongbong, West Java’, Mod. Quat. Res. S. E. Asia 8, 17–27.
Stuijts, I.: 1993, ‘Late Pleistocene and Holocene Vegetation of West Java, Indonesia’, Mod. Quat. Res. S. E. Asia 12, 1–173.
Stuijts, I., Newsome, J. C., and Flenley, J. R.: 1988, ‘Evidence for Late Quaternary Vegetational Change in the Sumatran and Javan Highlands’, Rev. Palaeobotan. Palynol 55, 207–216.
Talbot, M. R., Livingstone, D. A., Palmer, P. G., Maley, J., Melack, J. M., Delibrias, G., and Gulliksen, S.: 1984, ‘Preliminary Results from Sediment Cores from Lake Bosumtwi, Ghana’, Palaeoecol. Af Surround. Isles Antarct. 16, 173–192.
Taylor, D. M.: 1990, ‘Late Quaternary Pollen Records from Two Ugandan Mires: Evidence for Environmental Change in the Rukiga Highlands of Southwest Uganda’, Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 80, 283–300.
Tiedemann, R., Sarnthein, M., and Shackleton, N. J.: 1994, ‘Astronomic timescale for the Pliocene Atlantic J180 and Dust Flux Records of Ocean Drilling Program Site 659’, Paleoceanography 9, 619–638.
van der Hammen, T.: 1963, ‘A Palynological Study on the Quaternary of British Guiana’, Leid. Geol. Meded. 29, 125–180.
van der Hammen, T.: 1974, ‘The Pleistocene Changes of Vegetation and Climate in Tropical South America’, J. Biogeogr. 1, 3–26.
van der Hammen, T. and Absy, M. L.: 1994, ‘Amazonia during the Last Glacial’, Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 109, 247–261.
van der Hammen, T. and Gonzalez, E.: 1960a, ‘Upper Pleistocene and Holocene Climate and Vegetation of the “Sabana de Bogota” (Colombia, South America)’, Leid. Geol. Meded. 25, 261–315.
van der Hammen, T. and Gonzalez, E.: 1960b, ‘Holocene and Late Glacial Climate and Vegetation of Paramo de Palacio (E. Cordillera, Colombia, S. America)’, Geol. Mijnb. 39, 737–745.
van der Kaars, W. A.: 1993, ‘Palynologie van het Bandung Bekken, Java, Indonesie. Voorlopige resultaten voor de periode 120,000–20,000 BP’, Voordracht Palynologische Kring, Amersfoort, November 1993.
van Geel, B. and van der Hammen, T.: 1973, ‘Upper Quaternary Vegetational and Climatic Sequence of the Fuquene Area (Eastern Cordillera, Colombia)’, Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 14, 9–92.
van Zinderen Bakker, E. M.: 1964, ‘A Pollen Diagram from Equatorial Africa, Cherangani, Kenya’, Geol. Mijnb. 43, 123–128.
van Zinderen Bakker, E. M. and Coetzee, J. A.: 1972, ‘A Re-Appraisal of Late-Quaternary Climatic Evidence from Tropical Africa’, Palaeoecol. Af. and Surround. Isles Antarct. 7, 151–181.
Vincens, A.: 1986, ‘Diagramme pollinique d’un sondage Pleistocene superieur-Holocene du Lac Bogoria (Kenya)’, Rev. Palaeobotan. Palynol. 47, 169–192.
Walker, D. and Chen, Y.: 1987, ‘Palynological Light on Tropical Rain Forest Dynamics’, Quat. Sei. Rev. 6, 77–92.
Walker, D. and Flenley, J. R.: 1979, ‘Late Quaternary Vegetational History of the Enga District of Upland Papua New Guinea’, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. B286, 265–344.
Webster, P. J. and Streten, N. A.: 1978, ‘Late Quaternary Ice Age Climates of Tropical Australasia: Interpretations and Reconstructions’, Quat. Res. 10, 279–309.
Wijmstra, T. A.: 1971, ‘The Palynology of the Guyana Coastal Basin’, Dissertation, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, p. 62.
Wijmstra, T. A. and van der Hammen, T.: 1966, ‘Palynological Data on the History of Tropical Savannas in Northern South America’, Leid. Geol. Meded. 38, 71–90.
Wright Jr., H. E., Kutzbach, J. E., Webb III, T., Ruddiman, W. F., Street-Perrott, F. A., and Bartlein, P. J. (eds.): 1993, Global Climates since the Last Glacial Maximum, Univ. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, p. 569.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Flenley, J.R. (1998). Tropical Forests under the Climates of the Last 30,000 Years. In: Markham, A. (eds) Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Tropical Forest Ecosystems. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2730-3_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2730-3_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-90-481-5046-5
Online ISBN: 978-94-017-2730-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive