Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Dispersal mode, seed shadows, and colonization patterns

  • Chapter
Frugivory and seed dispersal: ecological and evolutionary aspects

Part of the book series: Advances in vegetation science ((AIVS,volume 15))

Abstract

This review assesses the state of our knowledge about comparative seed shadows. Using data presently available in the literature, I compare the slopes (on a log-linear scale) of seed shadows for plants with different morphologically characterized modes of dispersal. The seeds of many species have no evident morphological adaptation for dispersal and seem to achieve only short-distance dispersal. Seed shadows for herbaceous species with devices for wind have flatter slopes and more distant modes and maxima than those of ballists, which in turn exceed those with no special devices. Seed shadows for winddispersed trees and shrubs had similar or steeper slopes than those for vertebrate-dispersed species in this sample. Species with poor mechanisms for dispersal in space only sometimes had the capacity for better dispersal in time (dormancy). Although some species exhibited seed shadows sufficiently steep to be predicted to colonize new habitat in a ’front’ or phalanx pattern, actual colonization patterns must reflect many other factors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Acherar, M., Lepart, J. & Debussche, M. 1984. La colonisation des friches par le pin d’Alep (Pinus halapensis Miller) en Languedoc mediterraneen. Acta Oecol./Oecol. Plant. 5: 179–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, R. R. 1969. Seedfall and establishment of Englemann spruce in clearcut openings: A case history. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. RM-53: 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, A. N. 1988. Dispersal distance as a benefit of myrmecochory. Oecologia 75: 507–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antonovics, J. & Ellstrand, N. 1985. The fitness of dispersed progeny: experimental studies with Anthoxanthum odoratum.In: P. Jacquard, G. Hein, & J. Antonovics (eds.). Genetic differentiation and dispersal in plants. Pp. 369–381. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, R. M. 1981. Population dynamics and seed dispersal of Chaenorrhinum minus on railroad cinder ballast. Am. Midl. Nat. 106: 80–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Augspurger, C. K. 1983. Seed dispersal of the tropical tree, Platypodium elegans, and the escape of its seedlings from fungal pathogens. J. Ecol. 71: 759–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Augspurger, C. K. 1986. Morphology and dispersal potential of wind-dispersed diaspores of neotropical trees. Amer. J. Bot. 73: 353–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Augspurger, C. K. & Kitajima, K. 1991. Experimental studies of seedling recruitment from contrasting seed distributions. (ms. submitted).

    Google Scholar 

  • Augspurger, C. K. & Hogan, K. P. 1983. Wind dispersal of fruits with variable seed number in a tropical tree (Lonchocarpus pentaphyllus:Leguminosae). Amer. J. Bot. 70: 1031–1037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Auld, T. D. 1986. Population dynamics of the shrub Acacia suaveolens (Sm.) Willd: Dispersal and the dynamics of the soil seed-bank. Austr. J. Ecol. 11: 235–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, D. 1961. A comparative life-history study of Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. and Tussilago farfara L., the most troublesome weeds in the newly reclaimed polders of the former Zuiderzee. In: J. L. Harper (ed.). The biology of weeds. Pp. 205–222. Blackwell, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, S. C. H. 1978. Heterostyly in a tropical weed: The reproductive biology of the Turnera ulmifolia complex (Turneraceae). Can. J. Bot. 56: 1713–1725.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baskin, C. C. & Baskin, J. M. 1988. Germination ecophysiology of herbaceous plant species in a temperate region. Amer. J. Bot. 75: 286–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beattie, A. J. & Lyons, N. 1975. Seed dispersal in Viola (Violaceae):adaptations and strategies. Amer. J. Bot. 62: 714– 722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beer, T. & Swaine, M. D. 1977. On the theory of explosively dispersed seeds. New Phytol. 78: 681–694.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjorkbom, J. C. 1971. Production and germination of paper birch seed and its dispersal into a forest opening. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-209: 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyer, W. D. 1958. Longleaf pine seed dispersal in south Alabama. J. Forest. 56: 265–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bullock, S. H. 1976. Consequences of limited seed dispersal within simulated annual populations. Oecologia 24: 247–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bullock, S. H. & Primack, R. B. 1977. Comparative experimental study of seed dispersal on animals. Ecology 58: 681–686.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bulow-Olsen, A. 1984. Diplochory in Viola: A possible relation between seed dispersal and soil seed bank. Amer. Midl. Nat. 112:251–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burbidge, A. H. & Whelan, R. J. 1982. Seed dispersal in a cycad, Macrozamia riedlei. Aust. J. Ecol. 7: 63–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, C. S. 1983. Wind dispersal of some North American species of Andropogon (Gramineae). Rhodora 85: 65–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carkin, R. E., Franklin, J. F., Booth, J. & Smith, C. E. 1978. Seeding habits of upper-slope tree species. IV. Seed flight of noble fir and pacific silver fir. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-312: 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlquist, S. 1967. The biota of long-distance dispersal. V. Plant dispersal to Pacific islands. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94:129–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casper, B. B. 1987. Spatial patterns of seed dispersal and post-dispersal seed predation of Cryptantha flava (Boraginaceae).Amer. J. Bot. 74: 1646–1655.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. A. & Clark, D. B. 1984. Spacing dynamics of a tropical rain forest tree: evaluation of the Janzen-Connell model. Am. Nat. 124: 769–788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, S. L. & Uno, C. E. 1985. Seed predation, seed dispersal,and disturbance in grasslands: a comment. Am. Nat. 125: 866–872.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cremer, K. W. 1966. Dissemination of seed from Eucalyptus regnans. Aust. For. 30: 33–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cremer, K. W. 1971. Speeds of falling and dispersal of seed of Pinus radiata and P. contorta. Austr. For. Res. 5: 29–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Culver, D. C. & Beattie, A. J. 1978. Myrmecochory in Viola: Dynamics of seed-ant interactions in some West Virginia species. J. Ecol. 66: 53–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Debussche, M., Lepart, J. & Molina, J. 1985. La dissemination des plantes à fruits charnus par les oiseaux: rôle de la structure de la végétation et impact sur la succession en région méditerranéenne. Acta Oecol./Oecol. Gener. 6: 65–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dirzo, R. & Dominguez, C. A. 1986. Seed shadows, seed predation and the advantages of dispersal. In: A. Estrada & T. Fleming (eds.). Frugivores and seed dispersal. Pp. 237–250. Junk, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Dobbs, R. C. 1976. White spruce seed dispersal in central British Columbia. For. Chron. 52: 225–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estrada, A. & Coates-Estrada, R. 1986. Frugivory in howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata) at Los Tuxtlas, Mexico: dispersal and fate of seeds. In: A. Estrada & T. Fleming (eds.). Frugivory and seed dispersal. Pp. 93–104. Junk, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, R. H., Sharik, T. L. & Feret, P. P. 1983. Seed dispersal of the endangered Virginia round-leaf birch (Betula uber). For. Ecol. Mgt. 6: 115–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fowells, H. A. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. USDA Agric. Handbook 271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, J. F. & Smith, C. E. 1974a. Seeding habits of upperslope tree species. Il. Dispersal of a mountain hemlock seedcrop on a clearcut. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-214:1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, J. F. & Smith, C. E. 1974b. Seeding habits of upperslope tree species. III. Dispersal of white and Shasta red fir seeds on a clearcut. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW215:1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, J. & Stein, Z. 1980. The influences of seeddispersal mechanisms on the dispersion of Anastatica hierochuntica (Cruciferae) in the Negev Desert, Israel. J. Ecol. 68: 43–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ganeshaiah, K. N. & Uma Shaanker, R. 1988. Evolution of a unique seed maturity pattern in Croton bonplandianum Baill strengthens ant-plant mutualism for seed dispersal. Oecologia 77: 130–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garber, P. A. 1986. The ecology of seed dispersal in two species of callitrichid primates (Saguinus mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis). Am. J. Primatol. 10: 155–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gashwiler, J. S. 1969. Seed fall of three conifers in westcentral Oregon. For. Sci. 15: 290–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geritz, S. A. H., de Jong, T. J., & Klinkhamer, P. G. L. 1984. The efficacy of dispersal in relation to safe site area and seed production. Oecologia 62: 219–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gladstone, D. E. 1979. Description of a seed-shadow of a wind-dispersed tropical tree. Brenesia 16: 81–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez-Espinosa, M. & Quintana-Ascencio, P. F. 1986. Seed predation and dispersal in a dominant desert plant: Opuntia, ants, birds, and mammals. In: A. Estrada & T. Fleming (eds.). Frugivory and seed dispersal. Pp. 273–284.Junk, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Green, D. S. 1983. The efficacy of dispersal in relation to safe site density. Oecologia 56: 356–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, D. F. & Johnson, E. A. 1986. Dispersal capacity and seed production in anemochorous plants. Oecologia 68: 629–631.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, D. F. & Johnson, E. A. 1989. A model of wind dispersal or winged or plumed seeds. Ecology 70: 339–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, P. H. & Read, D. R. 1949. The spatial distribution of insect-borne plant-virus diseases. Ann. Appl. Biol. 36: 475–482.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grubert, M. 1974. Studies on the distribution of myxospermy among seeds and fruits of Angiospermae and its ecological importance. Acta Biol. Venez. 8: 315–551.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guries, R. P. & Nordheim, E. V. 1984. Flight characteristics and dispersal potential of maple samaras. For. Sci. 30: 434–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallwachs, W. 1986. Agoutis (Dasyprocta punctata), the inheritors of guapinal (Hymenaea courbaril: Leguminosae). In: A. Estrada & T. H. Fleming (eds.). Frugivores and seed dispersal. Pp. 285–304. Junk, Dordrecht.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W. D. & May, R. M. 1977. Dispersal in stable habitats. Nature 269: 578–581.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, J. S., Malanson, G. P. & Armstrong, M. P. 1990.Landscape fragmentation and dispersal in a model of riparian forest dynamics. Ecol. Model. 49: 277–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, J. L. 1977. Population biology of plants. Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holthuijzen, A. M. A. & Sharik, T. L. 1985a. The avian seed dispersal system of eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). Can. J. Bot. 63: 1508–1515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holthuijzen, A. M. A. & Sharik, T. L. 1985b. The red juniper (Juniperus virginiana L.) seed shadow along a fenceline. Am. Midl. Nat. 113: 200–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoppes, W. G. 1985. Seed dispersal by fall migrant frugivorous birds in an east-central Illinois woodland. Ph.D. Thesis,University of Illinois. 155 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horvitz, C. C. & Schemske, D. W. 1986. Seed dispersal of a neotropical myrmecochore: variation in removal rates and dispersal distance. Biotropica 18: 319–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howe, H. F. & Smallwood, J. 1982. Ecology of seed dispersal.Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 13: 201–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howe, H. F, Schupp, E. W. & Westley, L. C. 1984. Early consequences of seed dispersal for a neotropical tree (Virola surinamensis). Ecology 66: 781–791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hubbell, S. P. 1979. Tree dispersion, abundance, and diversity in a tropical dry forest. Science 203: 1299–1309.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, J. W. & Fahey, T. J. 1988. Seed dispersal and colonization in a disturbed northern hardwood forest. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club: 115: 89–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurka, H. & Haase, R. 1972. Seed ecology of Capsella bursapastoris (Cruciferae): Dispersal mechanism and the soil seed bank. Flora 172: 35–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isaac, L. A. 1930. Seed flight in the Douglas fir region. J. Forest. 28: 492–499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janzen, D. H. 1984. Dispersal of small seeds by big herbivores:Foliage is the fruit. Amer. Nat. 123: 338–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janzen, D. H., Miller, G. A., Hackforth-Jones, J., Pond, C. M., Hooper, K. & Janos, D. P. 1976. Two Costa Rican bat-generated seed shadows of Andira inermis (Leguminosae).Ecology 57: 1068–1075.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, E. A. 1975. Buried seed populations in the subarctic forest east of Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories. Can. J. Bot. 53: 2933–2941.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, W. C. 1988. Estimating dispersibility of Acer, Fraxinus and Tilia in fragmented landscapes from patterns of seedling establishment. Landscape Ecology 1: 175–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, W. C. & Adkisson, C. S. 1986. Airlifting the oaks. Nat. Hist. 95(10): 40–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kjellsson, G. 1985. Seed fate in a population of Carex pilulifera L. I. Seed dispersal and ant-seed mutualism. Oecologia 67: 416–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lack, A. J. & Kay, Q. O. N. 1987. Genetic structure, gene flow and reproductive ecology in sand-dune populations of Polygala vulgaris. J. Ecol. 75: 259–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamont, B. 1985. Dispersal of the winged fruits of Nuytsia floribunda (Loranthaceae). Aust. J. Ecol. 10: 187–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lanner, R. M. 1985. Effectiveness of the seed wing of Pinus flexilis in wind dispersal. Great Basin Nat. 45: 318–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, T. D. 1984. Effects of seed number per fruit on seed dispersal in Cassia fasciculata (Caesalpiniaceae). Bot. Gaz. 145: 136–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. A. B. & Brothers, T. 1981. Seed dispersal in hybrid Salsola. Great Basin Nat. 41: 370–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, D. A. & Kerster, H. W. 1968. Local gene dispersal in Phlox. Evolution 22: 130–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, D. A. & Kerster, H. 1969. Density-dependent gene dispersal in Liatris. Am. Nat. 103: 61–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, D. A. & Kerster, H. W. 1974. Gene flow in seed plants. Evol. Biol. 7: 139–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mair, A. R. 1973. Dissemination of tree seed Sitka spruce, western hemlock and Douglas fir. Scot. For. 27: 308–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matlack, G. R. 1987. Diaspore size, shape, and fall behavior in wind-dispersed plant species. Amer. J. Bot. 74: 1150–1160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCanny, S. J. & Cavers, P. B. 1987. The escape hypothesis:a test involving a temperate, annual grass. Oikos 49: 67–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCaughey, W. W. & Schmidt, W. C. 1987. Seed dispersal of Engelmann spruce in the intermountain west. Northwest Sci. 61: 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • McEvoy, P. B. & Cox, C. S. 1987. Wind dispersal distances in dimorphic achenes of ragwort, Senecio jacobaea. Ecology 68: 2006–2015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minogue, K. P. 1986. Disease gradients and the spread of disease. In: K. J. Leonard & W. E. Fry (eds.). Plant Disease Epidemiology. Pp. 285–310. MacMillan, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morse, D. H. & Schmitt, J. 1985. Propagule size, dispersal ability, and seedling performances in Asclepias syriaca. Oecologia 67: 372–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, K. G. 1988. Avian seed dispersal of three neotropical gap-dependent plants. Ecology 58: 271–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Dowd, D. J. & Hay, M. E. 1980. Mutualism between harvester ants and a desert ephemeral: Seed escape from rodents.Ecology 61: 531–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ohara, M. & Higashi, S. 1987. Interference by ground beetles with the dispersal by ants of seeds of Trillium species (Liliaceae). J. Ecol. 75: 1091–1098.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okubo, A. & Levin, S. A. 1989. A theoretical framework for data analysis of wind dispersal of seeds and pollen. Ecology 70: 329–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olivieri, I. & Berger, A. 1985. Seed dimorphism for dispersal: physiological, genetic and demographical aspects. In: P. Jaquard etal. (eds.). Genetic Differentiation and Dispersal in Plants. Pp. 413–429. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Peart, D. R. 1985. The quantitative representation of seed and pollen dispersal. Ecology 66: 1081–1083.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peart, M. H. 1979. Experiments on the biological significance of the morphology of seed-dispersal units in grasses. J. Ecol. 67: 843–863.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickford, A. F. 1929. Studies of seed dissemination in British Columbia. For. Chron. 5: 8–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Platt, W. J. 1975. The colonization and formation of equilibrium plant species associations on badger disturbances in a tall-grass prairie. Ecol. Monogr. 45: 285–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Platt, W. J. 1976. The natural history of a fugitive prairie plant (Mirabilis hirsuta (Parsh) MacM). Oecologia 22: 399– 405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Platt, W. J. & Weis, M. I. 1977. Resource partitioning and competition within a guild of fugitive prairie plants. Amer. Nat. 111: 479–513.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poole, A. L. & Cairns, D. 1940. Botanical aspects of ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.) control. DSIR Bull. 82, Wellington, NZ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portnoy, S. & Willson, M. F. ms. Seed dispersal curves: Behavior of the tail of the distribution.

    Google Scholar 

  • Primack, R. B. 1987. Relationships among flowers, fruits, and seeds. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18: 409–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Punter, D. & Gilbert, J. 1989. Animal vectors of Arceuthobium americanum seed in Manitoba. Can. J. For. Res. 19: 865– 869.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rabinowitz, D. & Rapp, J. K. 1979. Dual dispersal modes in hairgrass, Agrostis hiemalis (Walt.) B.S.P. (Gramineae). Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 106: 32–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rabinowitz, D. & Rapp, J. K. 1981. Dispersal abilities of seven sparse and common grasses from a Missouri prairie. Amer. J. Bot. 68: 616–624.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roe, AL. L. 1967. Seed dispersal in a bumper spruce seed year. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-39: 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. T. & Heithaus, E. R. 1986. Ants rearrange the vertebrate-generated seed shadow of a neotropical fig tree. Ecology 67: 1046–1051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sacchi, C. F. 1987. Variability in dispersal ability of common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca, seeds. Oikos 49: 191–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salisbury, E. J. 1942. The reproductive capacity of plants. Bell, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salisbury, E. J. 1961. Weeds and Aliens. Collins, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salisbury, E. J. 1975. The survival value of modes of dispersal. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 188: 183–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salisbury, E. J. 1976. Seed output and the efficacy of dispersal by wind. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 192: 323–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaal, B. A. 1980. Measurement of gene flow in Lupinus texensis. Nature 284: 450–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, J., Ehrhardt, D. & Swartz, D. 1985. Differential dispersal of self-fertilized and outcrossed progeny in jew-elweed (Impatiens capensis). Am. Nat. 126: 570–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. M. B. 1989. An example of ant-assisted plant invasion. Austr. J. Ecol. 14: 247–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. M. & Kok, L. T. 1984. Dispersal of musk thistle (Carduus nutans) seeds. Weed Sci. 32:120–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solbreck, C. & Andersson, D. 1987. Vertical distribution of fireweed, Epilobium angustifolium, seeds in the air. Can. J. Bot. 65: 2177–2178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sorensen, A. E. 1986. Seed dispersal by adhesion. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 17: 443–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stamp, N. E. & Lucas, J. R. 1983. Ecological correlates of explosive seed dispersal. Oecologia 59: 272–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Staniforth, R. J. & Cavers, P. B. 1977. The importance of cottontail rabbits in the dispersal of Polygonum spp. J. Appl. Ecol. 14: 261–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stapanian, M. A. & Smith, C. C. 1984. Density-dependent survival of scatterhoarded nuts: an experimental approach. Ecology 65: 1387–1396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stapanian, M. A. & Smith, C. C. 1986. How fox squirrels influence the invasion of prairies by nut-bearing trees. J. Mamm. 67: 326–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stergios, B. G. 1976. Achene production, dispersal, seed germination,and seedling establishment of Hieracium aurantiacum in an abandoned field community. Can. J. Bot. 54: 1189–1197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swaine, M. D. & Beer, T. 1977. Explosive seed dispersal in Hum crepitans L. (Euphorbiaceae). New Phytol. 78: 695–708.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamari, C. & Jacalne, D. V. 1984. Fruit dispersal of dipterocarps.Bull. For. and For. Prod. Res. Inst. 325: 127–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. N. 1988. Variation in interspecific interactions Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 19: 65–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trapp, E. J. 1988. Dispersal of heteromorphic seeds in Amphicarpaea bracteata (Fabaceae). Amer. J. Bot. 75: 1535–1539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K. N. & Radhamani, T. R. 1990. Associations among the modes of pollination and seed dispersal -Ecological factors and phylogenetic constraints.Evol. Trends Plants 4: 107–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Pijl, L. 1982. Principles of dispersal in higher plants. (3rd ed.) Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • van der Plank, J. E. 1949. The relation between the size of fields and the spread of plant-diseases into them. II. Diseases caused by fungi with air-borne spores, with a note on horizons of infection. Empire J. Exper. Agric. 17: 18–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Plank, J. E. 1960. Analysis of epidemics. Plant Pathology 3: 229–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, J. G. & Whitehouse, J. M. 1971. Seed structures and the taxonomy of the Cruciferae. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 64: 383–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venable, D. L. & Lawlor, L. 1980. Delayed germination and dispersal in desert annuals: escape in space and time. Oecologia 46: 272–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venable, D. L. & Levin, D. A. 1983. Morphological dispersal structures in relation to growth habit in the Compositae. Plant Syst. Evol. 143: 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venable, D. L. & Levin, D. A. 1985. Ecology of achene dimorphism in Heterotheca latifolia. I. Achene structure, germination and dispersal. J. Ecol. 73: 133–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venable, D. L., Burquez, A., Corral, G., Morales, E. & Espinosa,F. 1987. The ecology of seed hetermorphism in Heterosperma pinnatum in central Mexico. Ecology 68: 65–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venable, D. L. & Brown, J. S. 1988. The selective interactions of dispersal, dormancy, and seed size as adaptations for reducing risk in variable environments. Am. Nat. 131: 360–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verkaar, H. J., Schenkeveld, A. J. & van de Klashorst, M. P. 1983. The ecology of short-lived forbs in chalk grasslands: dispersal of seeds. New Phytol. 95: 335–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vickery, R. K., Phillips, D. R. & Wonsavage, P. R. 1986. Seed dispersal in Mimulus guttatus by wind and deer. Amer. Midl. Nat. 116:206–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waser, N. M., Vickery, R. K. & Price, M. V. 1982. Patterns of seed dispersal and population differentiation in Mimulus guttatus. Evolution 36: 753–761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkinson, A. R. 1978. The demography of a sand dune annual: Vulpia fasciculata. III. The dispersal of seeds. J. Ecol. 66: 483–498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webber, M. L. 1934. Fruit dispersal. Malay. Forest. 3:18–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, P. A. 1975. A seed trap for determining patterns of seed deposition in terrestrial plants. Can. J. Bot. 53: 810– 813.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westelaken, I. L. & Maun, M. A. 1987. Spatial pattern and seed dispersal of Lithospermum caroliniense in Lake Huron sand dunes. Can. J. Bot. 63: 125–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westoby, M. & Rice, B. 1981. A note on combining two methods of dispersal-for-distance. Aust. J. Ecol. 6: 189– 192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willson, M. F. & Crome, F. H. C. 1989. Patterns of seed rain at the edge of a tropical Queensland rain forest. J. Trop. Ecol. 5: 301–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfenbarger, D. O. 1946. Dispersion of small organisms. Amer. Midl. Nat. 35: 1–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodall, S. L. 1982. Seed dispersal in Melaleuca quinquenervia.Florida Sci. 45: 81–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zasada, J. C. & Lovig, D. 1983. Observations on primary dispersal of white spruce, Picea glauca, seed. Can. FieldNat.97: 104–106.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 2770, Sherwood Lane, Juneau, AK, 99801, USA

    M. F. Willson

Authors
  1. M. F. Willson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

T. H. Fleming A. Estrada

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Willson, M.F. (1993). Dispersal mode, seed shadows, and colonization patterns. In: Fleming, T.H., Estrada, A. (eds) Frugivory and seed dispersal: ecological and evolutionary aspects. Advances in vegetation science, vol 15. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1749-4_19

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1749-4_19

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-010-4767-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-011-1749-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation