Abstract
The authors introduce the extent and longevity of non-domiciled children and youth. While multiple definitions are presented, the authors divide the current status of non domiciled youth by homeless youth in the developed world and street children in the developing world. The origins of homeless youth are related to abuse. They are older than street children, more likely to come from middle class families, and equal in gender. A necessary condition of street children is poverty; several other factors are important including abuse, neglect, and historical and cultural context. Nor are all street children are on the street solely because of psychological reasons. Many are there because they are poor and being on the street is one way of coping with poverty by finding income generating sources. Many other street children are victims of war and natural disasters. Others are stateless. Comparisons and differences between street children and working children are introduced. For example, street children and homeless youth often rebel against authoritarian parents.
The concept of Child-Street System is introduced and explained as putting the emphasis on children’s reactions to the street. Six examples for street children are given: hero, hard worker, ambivalent, survivor, the isolated, and the dependent abused. Homeless youth consist of pre -runaways still living at home but are already showing sufficient problematic behavior. Two groups of homeless youth live on the streets. There are situational runaways who have ran away before, but do not report being abused and justifiable runaways were abused or neglected. Chronic runways had a history of at least three episodes of running most of them report being abused, or neglected, a smaller percentage did not.
The career of street children and homeless is explained from leaving home to being fully engaged in street life. Gender is a key difference in this process. Almost all street and homeless children maintain family ties. Their choice begins by choosing the best of bad choices. At first they observe and find another newcomer to relate to. Then soon learn whom to avoid and what to stay away from, as well as who to rely on and where goods can safely be found. At some point the child is accepted by a group of existing runaway youth or street children.
Once on the street children and homeless youth must cope with difficult circumstances. There are conflicting results on how well they do with some research suggesting that they fair poorly (particularly true for the homeless) and others that they do at least as well as the siblings they left behind (street boys). Gender considerations favor the mental and physical health of boys over girls.
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Notes
- 1.
See Table 4.1 (page 122) for one list of estimated numbers of street children worldwide.
- 2.
Their parents worked for several generations in what was Ethiopia, but became Eritrea when the war ended. They were forced by the international humanitarian effort back into their country of citizenship (Ethiopia). The new Ethiopian government accused them of fighting for Eritrean independence. Thus, they found themselves living in camps in Ethiopia amongst the enemy whose citizenship they shared.
- 3.
The strong identification of gang members with a cultural identity that replaces the loss of their former advantage, such as the “skin heads” of Great Britain, has led in some cases to more gangs becoming internationalized (the drug cartels, the sex trade).
- 4.
Even today this is difficult to ascertain as non-empirical studies suggest that drug use among street children is between 20% and 90% (See Sherman and Plitt 2005).
- 5.
All numbers without clear empirical evidence should be suspect. They either come from NGOs or International Organizations who might use them to fight for a piece of the pie, or academics who might try to increase numbers to make their work seem more important.
- 6.
The National Runaway Switchboard (2001) estimates a smaller number, about one million runaways each year.
- 7.
A study in Vancouver, Canada found that there were street gangs and “wannabe” groups, the latter much like the homeless youth of our discussion (Gordon 2004).
- 8.
At the turn of the 21st century, approximately 13 to 14 million children in the US were growing up in families below the poverty line. This is about one in five children under the age of 18 (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1999).
- 9.
Another expression, children “out of place”, is conveying the same idea: “The emphasis should shift away from attempts to define street children towards analysis of their relationship with street environments” (Ennew and Connolly 1996: 131).
- 10.
Separated minors are “children are under 18 years of age who are outside their country of origin and separated from both parents, or their previous legal/customary primary caregiver. Some children are totally alone while others may be living with extended family members” (Separated Children in Europe Programme, http://www.savethechildren.net/separated_children/about_us/separated_children.html).
- 11.
According to General Comment Number 6 of the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, “unaccompanied children” (also called unaccompanied minors) are children, as defined in article 1 of the Convention, who have been separated from both parents and other relatives and are not being cared for by an adult who, by law or custom, is responsible for doing so” (http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G05/438/05/PDF/G0543805.pdf?OpenElement).
- 12.
Matchinda (1999) recommended that interventions should focus on parenting skills, although means to supply basic needs could not be dismissed.
- 13.
There is always the danger that the children are telling the researcher what they think he or she wants to know. We talk much of this bias, called “social desirability”, in Chapter 4.
- 14.
Bellot (2000) shows how much the public response to homeless youth misses the subjective reality of children in street situations.
- 15.
About 60% of the homeless become homeless again. The homeless came from poor homes with a history of mental illness and drug abuse and child abuse were common (Shaffner 1999).
- 16.
This study showed not only the difficulties of some research on the mental health of runaways, but also the problems in comparing the mental health of homeless youth and street children.
- 17.
In the developing world there is often less of an emphasis on the individual’s tenacity and more on the community. This might be a practicality due to limited options. The reader should note that when it comes to religious-run programs in the developing world, the emphasis is on adapting modern and western traditions, and incorporating in many cases the proselytizing measures of the religion.
- 18.
The diary of Maria de Jesus (1962) gives a gripping literary description of how one poor Brazilian woman in a similar situation learned that having men in her house was just too emotionally and economically costly. Peatrie (1968) provides a more scientific account of the same point of view in Venezuela. Similar findings come from a study of family life among the poor in Nairobi, where “40 percent of the mothers … felt that marriage spoils a relationship and gives the man too much power and control over the woman” (Suda 1993, p. 113).
- 19.
It has been speculated, but not adequately supported by empirical evidence, that this type of family, unlike the extended traditional family, will lose its connection to the common community associated with traditional African kin (Erny 1981).
- 20.
Mtonga (2011) reports that in Zambia street girls were on the streets or returned to the streets because of abuse by a stepmother.
- 21.
Sometimes, within a country, the proportion of girls to boys on the streets varies according to local conditions. For example, in Muslim areas of countries that have groups of mixed religions (Nigeria for example), Muslim girls are very rarely found on the street as the presence of unaccompanied girls in that environment is socially unacceptable and so their families will not permit them to leave the home.
- 22.
In a national study (Cauce et al. 2000) of American homeless adolescents, 60% of girls were sexually abused before leaving home (not quite 25% for boys).
- 23.
- 24.
Chupagruesos are more pushed than pulled into the street, while the gamines are more pulled than pushed (Aptekar 1990).
- 25.
Scheper-Hughes and Hoffman (1998) refer to the Moleques, who are the Brazilian street kids known for their charming but cunning entrepreneurial skills.
- 26.
It has been assumed that while street boys (and homeless boys) earned a livelihood in both legal (trading, begging) and illegal ways (stealing and fencing), female street children (and female homeless youth) become prostitutes. Thus it wasn’t surprising that American runaway girls used sex as a way to get by and it was almost a necessity for girls as stealing or selling drugs were for boys (Paradise and Cauce 2002).
- 27.
Another problem is that there is a lack of deep structure to studies, even the ethnographies. Most mental health studies of both street children and homeless youth rarely look deeply into a child’s life, including how street children love and show fear.
- 28.
When war is a factor, ages change. For example, in post conflict Rwanda (Veale and Dona 2003) the mean age was 14.2 and nearly half the Rwandan sample was over 15 years of age. While Hecht (1998) points out that in spite of being called “street children”, most of the kids on the streets were adolescents, since adults were treated worse in the justice system, it was far better to be an adolescent for as long as possible. He knew of many 20 years olds who remained “street children” for years.
- 29.
Heinonen (2011) notes that the conflict that befalls Ethiopian street children is that they have two developmental periods at the same time. Dependency, blind obedience and total deference to parents and all adults were associated with the ideal child and childhood. This was a heavy task to achieve for the street children she worked with since they were expected to be self-sustaining in the street, but instantly turn into dependent, malleable and voiceless children when at home.
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Aptekar, L., Stoecklin, D. (2014). Children in Street Situations: Street Children and Homeless Youth. In: Street Children and Homeless Youth. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7356-1_2
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