Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Subsystems of the Bilateral Foreign Policy System and Their Actors’ Influence on Programme Formulation and Implementation

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Development Cooperation Policy in Forestry from an Analytical Perspective

Part of the book series: World Forests ((WFSE,volume 13))

  • 900 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter defines networks and subsystems and stresses the relevancy to address these in policy research. It provides us with a theory-based approach to subsystems in foreign policy and how these are interlinked through gateways at various decision levels. It assumes that the influence that actors of different subsystems can attain depends on their integration into the other subsystems and on how independent they can make decisions within the subsystem they belong to. It shows empirically which actors attain gateway positions. Forest sector-relevant processes and policy factors, triggering decisions upon framing elements and affecting the forest sector policy, are described. It is shown that in Austria there prevails only a temporary forest sector network, while viable forest sector subsystems are found in Finland and Germany and a diminishing one in Sweden. Empirical findings clearly show the importance of institutionalised structures, also at subsystems of superior levels, for the integration of a forest sector subsystem and, hence, for out-reaching forest-related influence via gateways to superior levels. They also show that where such structures do not exist and forestry is subsumed under a cross-cutting policy, forestry actors face hard times.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    That is, embassies (and their staff) are often brokers. They hold an influential gateway-actor position in a gateway to the influential recipient country’s actors. Therefore, they can term as brokers and bridge between donor actors having no excess to the recipient country’s actor(s).

  2. 2.

    With respect to the intervention level, only the part on reformulation applies.

  3. 3.

    Network analysis, for instance, provides, as a result of mapping actors and their interrelations, with the gateway actors to other subsystems.

  4. 4.

    Comparable to what is called a subsystem or institutionalised network in this chapter

  5. 5.

    That is, donors’ over recipients’ governments; recipients’ governments or elites over structures of traditional gift economy; OECD DAC’s sectors, as a statistical instrument of structural force; this research has shown limited evidence for recipients’ governments’ influence on the political definition of ‘sectors’ (i.e. naming) – though attempts to channel donors’ support to own sectors, defined by the recipient, were made in Tanzania.

  6. 6.

    In Ekholm’s and Friedman’s ‘global systems approach’ (pp. 37ff in Kreff 2003), multinational companies or international organisations are perceived to constitute rather effects of structural changes than acting actors, which is not shared in this research, because too much determinism is placed on a ‘mechanical global system’ over an ‘actor-oriented decision-making’ system in their concepts.

    Similarly, Hannerz’s ‘world system’ (1991, p. 118, cit. in: Kreff 2003), consisting of various, overlapping (…) (cultural) networks, is helpful, but in contrary to his approach of centres (global cities), building networks, relatively independent from national or institutional entities, this ­chapter stresses the need to rely on actors for analysing policy and other actions.

    Applying above approaches, it can be argued that to understand ‘global changes’, it is not necessary to distinguish between subsystems of nation states (and actors as social entities) but rather between, for instance, ‘centres of the world’ and their elites on one side and ‘peripheries’ in and across various countries on the other side, which would constitute subsystems within such systems. Though this may indeed sometimes be applicable (i.e. high external dependence of recipient countries’ financial budgets may indeed raise the question, whether such a ‘recipient countries’ subsystem’ at all exists), in this chapter, it is assumed that, at least initially and formally, one has to consider nation states as sovereign ‘hosts’ of national policy formulation and decision-making and bilateral negotiations as ‘arenas of influence’, as negotiation processes, where governments establish consensus (in a realist’s foreign policy view).

    Therefore, the decision-making levels, bureaucratic hierarchies and possible stakeholder incorporation processes (institutionalism’s view), in both donor and recipient countries, play a central role. However, the joint cooperation networks/subsystems (at various policy levels) may dominate over the recipients’ national policy subsystem and its policy formulation in certain cases. This can happen to the extent that the viability of a sovereign recipients’ policy subsystem, hence its relevancy or existence, may have to be questioned and its policy rather seen as a result of informal dominancy of external subsystems’/actors’ influence in the joint, bilateral/multilateral cooperation policy subsystem. In other words, the (informal) competences for the policy formulation are then held by the strong actors of the bilateral policy subsystems (donor’s and recipient’s governments), rather than by the actors of the recipient country’s policy subsystem at large. Yet, it is the recipient’s government that has the (formal) possibility to agree or disagree to a certain policy or intervention (though existing interdependencies). But the elites’ ‘affinity’ to the external donors will, in such cases, be higher than towards the own countries’ actors and people (c.p. Hydén 1980, 1983; cit. in van Ufford, 1997, p. 130).

  7. 7.

    After Korten and Alfonso (1980), cit. in van Ufford (1997, p. 126).

  8. 8.

    However, such gateways can exist between hierarchical subsystems or between parallel ones.

  9. 9.

    Therefore, the FDP subsystem is analysed by network analysis, as seen from the above chapters.

  10. 10.

    According to Long (1997, p. 222), ‘In rural development such gateways appear especially when the local government or other external organizations intervene, in order to implement a certain development policy or to exert political-administrative control over rural populations and their resources’ (own translation).

  11. 11.

    Such are equivalent to subsystems or ‘arenas of influence’ in this research.

  12. 12.

    That is, retention of the role of Austrian NGO/NPO in the Austrian development policy and their interrelations to respective authorities; the role of consultancies in Finnish development policy; the role of German agencies, though 2011 integrations into the Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, GIZ; the role of the Swedish International Development Cooperation, though recent restructuring.

  13. 13.

    However, the MMM can also administer financial means provided by the Formin (expert interviews: actors nr. 34, 37).

  14. 14.

    In example, in Tanzania, the first forest program got started, after a visit of the Finnish President.

  15. 15.

    Still many places remind us of Olof Palme: that is, the Olof Palme Agroforestry Centre in Kitale, Kenya (Vi-SCC project).

  16. 16.

    Already 1880/1881 the Austrian Emperor Franz-Josef mediated an independence process and agreed on the independence of the Miskito coast (c.p. Die Presse 2007: ‘Die Helden von der Dschungel-Universität’ print version 27.03.2007).

  17. 17.

    Usually, the Council of Ministers and the parliament have to be informed on the general development cooperation policy of a donor country. Real interventions are therefore rather rare (c.p. p. 884ff in Höll 2006). Usually, there exists a relatively ‘closed’ parliamentary committee dealing with development policy (c.p. also Marjanovic´ 2009).

  18. 18.

    A country programme is a programme of a donor, covering all ongoing and envisaged development cooperation with a certain recipient (or partner) country.

  19. 19.

    A country desk is an official unit of the donor agency or ministry, responsible for all development cooperation with a certain recipient (or partner) country.

  20. 20.

    It also builds the basis for the Sida initiated and financed Environment for Development (EfD) Initiative. The Environmental Economics Unit (EEU) at the University of Gothenburg is the Swedish node in the EfD network. The Environmental Economics Unit is the initiator of the EfD. The EEU manages the initiative and supports the EfD centres through the EfD Secretariat (another example for a process at this level).

  21. 21.

    Recently, that is, forestry and natural resource tenure advisor/team for agriculture forestry and food security and forestry advisor/policy department for economic opportunities.

  22. 22.

    Since 2006, the government consists of the Moderate Party, Central Party, Liberal Peoples’ Party and Christian Democrats’ Party. Before, the Social Democrats were 12 years in power.

  23. 23.

    DDC  =  Department for Development Cooperation, BmaA: Mr. Weingärtner, environmental advisor.

  24. 24.

    This is apparently not only limited to the forest sector, but here the forest sector is considered. There are other highly competitive cooperation sectors, with a strong relation to economic interests, like, for instance, the energy sector.

  25. 25.

    Which will be from 2010/2011 under the MfFA (expert interviews: actor nr. 210).

  26. 26.

    Sida staff at embassies being under the MfFA from 2010/2011; Finland’s embassies’ experts are under Formin.

  27. 27.

    See also Chap. 6, with regard to donor strategies, and Annexes 2 and 3 for examples of interest spirals in forest cooperation cases.

References

  • Aurenhammer PK (2008) Analyse der forstlichen Entwicklungspolitik und Ableitung von möglichen Handlungsfeldern für Österreich (Arbeitstitel), TEIL A: Ergebnisse aus der Analyse von Sekundärdaten. BMLFUW, Wien (Analyses of forest-related development cooperation policy and suggestions for innovative solutions for future policies, Part A: results from the analyses of secondary data, scientific report to the BMLFUW. German, executive summary in English)

    Google Scholar 

  • Aurenhammer PK (2010) Analyse der forstlichen Entwicklungspolitik und Ableitung von möglichen Handlungsfeldern für Österreich, Endbericht. BMLFUW, Wien (Analyses of forest-related development cooperation policy and suggestions for innovative solutions for future policies, final scientific report, including qualitative results, to the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management. BMLFUW. German, executive summary in English)

    Google Scholar 

  • Aurenhammer PK (2011) European states’ bilateral foreign aid policy in forestry, a policy field analyses of Austrian, Finnish, German and Swedish forestry aid, with emphasis on program formulation and implementation. Dissertation, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Austrian Government (2008) Regierungsprogramm für die XXIV. Gesetzgebungsperiode (2008 – 2013). (Governmental program for the 24th period of legislature (2008 – 2013))

    Google Scholar 

  • Barraclough SL, Ghimire K (1995) Forests and livelihoods. Macmillan Press Ltd., London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bierschenk T, Elwert G, Kohnert D (1997) Einleitung: Entwicklungshilfe und ihre Folgen, In: Bierschenk T, Elwert G (eds) Entwicklung und ihre Folgen: Ergebnisse empirischer Untersuchungen in Afrika, 2. Auflage. Campus Verlag, Frankfut/Main/New York, pp 7–40

    Google Scholar 

  • BKA (n.d.) Die öffentliche Entwicklungszusammenarbeit Österreichs: Projekte der Technischen Hilfe 1991/92 (Austria’s public development co-operation: technical assistance projects 1991/92). BKA, Vienna

    Google Scholar 

  • BMeiA, BMLFUW and ADA (2009) Strategischer Leitfaden Umwelt und Entwicklung der österreichischen Entwicklungspolitik. BMeiA, Wien (Strategic guideline on environment and development for the Austrian development policy)

    Google Scholar 

  • BMZ (2002a) Sektorkonzept Wald und nachhaltige Entwicklung. Mai 2002. BMZ, Bonn (Sector concept forestry and sustainable development)

    Google Scholar 

  • BMZ (2002b) Umwelt – Entwicklung – Nachhaltigkeit (Entwicklungspolitik und Ökologie) (Environment – Development – Sustainability (Development policy and ecology)) BMZ, Bonn

    Google Scholar 

  • BMZ (2003) Aktionsprogramm 2015. 2. unveränderte Auflage, September 2003. (Action program 2015) BMZ, Bonn

    Google Scholar 

  • BMZ (2004) Fortschrittsbericht zur deutschen bilateralen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit im Waldsektor. Oktober 2004. (Progress report on the German bilateral development cooperation in the forest sector) BMZ, Bonn

    Google Scholar 

  • BMZ (n.d.) Nationale Waldprogramme – Instrumente für eine bessere Politikgestaltung im Waldsektor. (National forest programs – instruments for a better policy-making in the forest sector) BMZ, Bonn

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohn C, Hahn A (2000) Pierre Bourdieu. In: Kaesler D (ed) Klassiker der Soziologie 2. Von Talcott Parsons bis Pierre Bourdieu. Verlag C.H. Beck, München

    Google Scholar 

  • BOKU (2008) Empfehlung des Int. Gremiums vom 2. Juli 2008 zur geographischen Schwerpunktsetzung der Strategie zur Internationalisierung der BOKU. Report of the University of Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria (Suggestions of the international council from the 2nd of July 2008, on the geographical priority setting in the internationalization strategy of the University of Agriculture, Vienna)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu P (1979) Entwurf einer Theorie der Praxis. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt/Main

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu P (1987) Die feinen Unterschiede. Kritik der gesellschaftlichen Urteilskraft. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt/Main

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu P (1993) Sozialer Sinn. Kritik der theoretischen Vernunft. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt/Main

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu P (1998) Praktische Vernunft. Zur Theorie des Handelns. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt/Main

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu P (2001) Das politische Feld: Zur Kritik der politischen Vernunft. UVK, Konstanz

    Google Scholar 

  • Dachs H (ed) (2006) Politik in Österreich. Manz, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • Die Presse (2007) Die Helden von der Dschungel-Universität print version 27.03.2007 (The heroes of the jungle university)

    Google Scholar 

  • ETFAG (2006) Country reports, European Tropical Forestry Advisory Group, 2006

    Google Scholar 

  • ETFAG (2007) Country reports, European Tropical Forestry Advisory Group, 2007

    Google Scholar 

  • Formin (1987) Metsätalous ja metsäteollisuus, toimialakohtaiset periaatteet. (Forestry and forest industry, sector specific principles), Muistio Nro. 406, 16.04.1987. Formin, Helsinki

    Google Scholar 

  • Formin (1990) Maatalousstrategia. (Agricultural strategy), 01.03.1990. Formin, Helsinki

    Google Scholar 

  • Formin (2007) Development policy programme 2007. Formin, Helsinki

    Google Scholar 

  • Formin (2008) Metsälinjaus. (Forest sector guideline), 11.12.2008. Formin, Helsinki

    Google Scholar 

  • Galtung J (1969) Violence, peace and peace research. Journal of Peace Research 6(3):167–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gotschi E (2007) Worte als Speicher der Geschichte. Ein Deutungsversuch zu den Begriffen “Entwicklung und “Entwicklungszusammenarbeit”. In: Gotschi E, Hunger A, Zapotoczky K (eds) Politik – Programme – Projekte, Menschenorientierte Entwicklungszusammenarbeit im Sinne von Bourdieu. Trauner Verlag, Linz, pp 35–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Gotschi E, Zach M, Vogel S (2007) Soziale Innovationen als Ergebnis von Projektinterventionen. Analyse zweier Initiativen im Distrik Búzi, Mosambik. In: Gotschi E, Hunger A, Zapotoczky K (eds) Politik – Programme – Projekte, Menschenorientierte Entwicklungszusammenarbeit im Sinne von Bourdieu. Trauner Verlag, Linz, pp 81–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Hannerz U (1992) Cultural complexity: studies in the social organization of meaning. Columbia University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Howlett M, Ramesh M (2003) Studying public policy: policy cycles and policy subsystems, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Don Mills (a.o.)

    Google Scholar 

  • Howlett M, Ramesh M, Perl A (2009) Studying public policy: policy cycles and policy subsystems, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Ontario (a.o.)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hydén G (1980) Beyond ujamaa in Tanzania: underdevelopment and an uncaptured peasantry. University of California Press, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Hydén G (1983) No shortcuts to progress: African development management in perspective. University of California Press, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Marjanovic´ D (2009) Das Parlament und die EZA, Der österreichische Nationalrat und die von ihm verabschiedeten Entwicklungsgesetze von 1961 bis 2006. Diplomarbeit, Internationale Entwicklung, Universität Wien (The Parliament and the Austrian Development Cooperation, The Austrian National Assembly and the Development Acts passed by it between 1961 and 2006, Master thesis, International Development, University of Vienna)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreff F (2003) Grundkonzepte der Sozial- und Kulturanthropologie in der Globalisierungsdebatte. Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Long N (1997) Handlung, Struktur und Schnittstelle: Theoretische Reflexionen. In: Bierschenk T, Elwert G (eds) Entwicklung und ihre Folgen: Ergebnisse empirischer Untersuchungen in Afrika, 2. Auflage. Campus Verlag, Frankfut/Main/New York, pp 217–248

    Google Scholar 

  • MfFA (2003) Swedish policy for global development. Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 2003. MfFA, Stockholm

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD (2009) Austria. Development assistance committee (DAC) peer review. OECD, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • OEZA (2003) Ländliche Entwicklung, Sektorpolitik der OEZA. 02.06.2003. (Rural development policy of the Austrian development cooperation) OEZA, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • OEZA (2005, 2006a, 2007) Dreijahresprogramm der Österreichischen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit: 2005-2007 vom 15.11.2005, 2006-2008 vom 14.11.2006, 2007-2009 vom 19.12.2007. OEZA, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • OEZA (2006b) Leitlinie Energie für nachhaltige Entwicklung (Mai 2006). (Energy for sustainable development guideline) OEZA, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • OEZA (n.d., a) Bhutan – subprogram energy (2005–2007). OEZA, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • OEZA (n.d., b) OEZA-Bericht Thematische Schwerpunkte Teil 1. (Report of the Austrian development cooperation on thematic priorities, Part 1) OEZA, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • OEZA (n.d., c) OEZA-Bericht 2006 Regionen und Schwerpunktländer. (Report of the Austrian development cooperation on regions and priority countries) OEZA, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • Pilz B (1996) Eine Welt für Alle: Handeln mit Perspektive. Die Österreichische Entwicklungszusammenarbeit. (One world for all – action with a vision. Austrian development co-operation). BMaA, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • Rechnungshof (2009) Entwicklungszusammenarbeit im BMeiA und in der Austrian Development Agency. 2009. Bund 2009/11. Bericht des Rechnungshofes. (Development cooperation by the BMeiA and by the Austrian Development Agency. 2009. Report of the Austrian Court of Audit) Rechnungshof, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards M (2006) Institutional and economic issues in the promotion of commercial forest management in Amerindian societies. In: Posey DA, Balick MJ (eds) Human impacts on Amazonia. The role of traditional ecological knowledge in conservation and development. Columbia University Press, New York, pp 181–192

    Google Scholar 

  • Paris Declaration of Aid Effectiveness (2005) http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/11/41/34428351.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • Sabatier PA (1993) Advocacy-Koalitionen, Policy Wandel und Policy Lernen: Eine Alternative zur Phasenheuristik. In: Héritier A (ed) Policy-Analyse. Kritik und Neuorientierung. PVS Sonderheft 24, Opladen, pp 116–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Sabatier PA, Jenkins-Smith HC (1993) Policy change and learning – an advocacy coalition approach. Westview Press, Boulder

    Google Scholar 

  • Schreckenberg K (1998) Austria. In: Shepherd G, Brown D, Richards M, Schreckenberg K (eds) The EU tropical forestry sourcebook. European Commission, Brussels, 122ff

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd G, Brown D, Richards M, Schreckenberg K (eds) (1998) The EU tropical forestry sourcebook. European Commission, Brussels

    Google Scholar 

  • Sida (1999) Position paper: sustainable forestry – a summary of Sida’s experiences and priorities. Swedish International Development Agency, Stockholm

    Google Scholar 

  • Sida (2004) Policy and action plan for environmentally sustainable development: Sida’s environmental management system. Swedish International Development Agency, Stockholm

    Google Scholar 

  • SPÖ (2005) Entwicklungspolitische Herausforderungen im Herbst 2005. Pressekonferenz. NR Petra Bayr. 31 August 2005. (Challenges for development policy in autumn 2005. Press Conference of the Member of Parliament Petra Bayr.) SPÖ, Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • Swedish Government (2010) Policy for environmental and climate issues in Swedish development cooperation (2010-2014). Swedish Government, Stockholm

    Google Scholar 

  • van Ufford PQ (1997) Die verborgene Krise der Entwicklungshilfe: Entwicklungshilfebürok- ratien zwischen Absichten und Ergebnissen. In: Bierschenk T, Elwert G (eds) Entwick- lung und ihre Folgen: Ergebnisse empirischer Untersuchungen in Afrika, 2. Auflag. Campus Verlag, Frankfut/Main/New York, pp 121–142

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Chair of Forest and Nature Conservation Policy, Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

    Peter K. Aurenhammer

Authors
  1. Peter K. Aurenhammer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Aurenhammer, P.K. (2013). Subsystems of the Bilateral Foreign Policy System and Their Actors’ Influence on Programme Formulation and Implementation. In: Development Cooperation Policy in Forestry from an Analytical Perspective. World Forests, vol 13. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4957-3_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation