Abstract
In its aim to become a global security actor, the European Union (EU) is increasingly engaged in civilian and military crisis management missions all over the world. According to its comprehensive approach to crisis management, these missions are not the only means by which conflicts can be addressed. The EU has a long-standing tradition of using instruments such as trade agreements, development aid and economic sanctions to promote its values to the outside world. However, this comprehensive approach to crisis management can only be successful if the EU is able to provide coherent international action. This chapter will assess whether the new institutions of the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy that will be assisted by the European External Action Service, and the permanent President of the Council will be able to provide the EU with more effective and coherent external relations. It will be argued that although the High Representative from now on links the Council with the Commission which appears to be the key to a more efficient policy, some serious problems still lie ahead. These problems are likely to arise due to the continuing difficulties in the delimitation of competences between different policy fields of the European Union that have foreign policy implications.
Julia Schmidt—Ph.D. candidate, The University of Edinburgh.
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Notes
- 1.
See for example Council Joint Action 2008/229/CFSP of 17 March 2008 on EU Police Mission in Afghanistan, EUPOL AFGHANISTAN.
- 2.
See for example Council Joint Action 2008/124/CFSP of 4 February 2008 on EU rule of law mission in Kosovo, EULEX KOSOVO.
- 3.
See for example Council Joint Action 2007/359/CFSP of 23 May 2007 on EU Border Assistance Mission at Rafah Crossing Point in the Palestinian Territories EU BAM Rafah.
- 4.
See for example Council Joint Action 2008/112/CFSP of 12 February 2008 on EU mission in support of security sector reform in Guinea-Bissau, EU SSR Guinea-Bissau.
- 5.
See for example Council Joint Action 2005/643/CFSP of 9 September 2005 on the Aceh Monitoring Mission (AMM).
- 6.
See for example Council Joint Action 2007/677/CFSP of 15 October 2007 on EUFOR in Chad.
- 7.
Koutrakos 2007, 250.
- 8.
European Council (2003) A Secure Europe For A Better World: European Security Strategy, 12 December 2003 Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/78367.pdf, 11 [hereinafter European Security Strategy]. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 9.
Council of the European Union (2007) Brussels European Council, Presidency Conclusions, 21/22 June 2007, 11177/1/07 REV 1, ANNEX I, IGC Mandate, Brussels, para 1 [hereinafter Brussels European Council].
- 10.
- 11.
European Council (2003) A Secure Europe For A Better World: European Security Strategy, 12 December 2003 Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/78367.pdf, 11 [hereinafter European Security Strategy]. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 12.
European Council (2003) A Secure Europe For A Better World: European Security Strategy, 12 December 2003 Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/78367.pdf, 7 [hereinafter European Security Strategy]. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 13.
In favour of the inclusion of sanctions into the EU’s comprehensive approach to crisis management: Anthony 2002, 203.
- 14.
European Council (2003) A Secure Europe For A Better World: European Security Strategy, 12 December 2003 Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/78367.pdf, 11 [hereinafter European Security Strategy]. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 15.
Council of the European Union (2004) Basic Principles on the Use of Restrictive Measures (Sanctions), 7 June 2004, 10198/1/04 REV 1, PESC 450, Annex 1, Brussels, 7 June 2004, paras 1 and 5.
- 16.
Council of the European Union, CONSILIUM-ARTEMIS/DRC, available at www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=605&lang=en. Last accessed 3 June 2011; Council Joint Action (2000/792/CFSP) of 14 December 2000 appointing the Special Representative of the European Union for the African Great Lakes Region and repealing Joint Action 96/250/CFSP.
- 17.
Council Joint Action 2003/423/CFSP of June 2003 on the European Union military operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
- 18.
Consilium Fact Sheet (2010) EU Mission to provide advice and assistance for security sector reform in the Democratic Republic of Congo (EUSE DR CONGO), EUSEC RDC/08, available at www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/missionPress/files/100426%20Factsheet%20EUSEC%20RD%20Congo%20-%20version%208_EN.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 19.
Consilium Fact Sheet, EUFOR RD Congo: THE MISSION, available at www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/The_mission.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 20.
Consilium Fact Sheet (2010) EU Police Mission for the DRC (EUPOL RD CONGO), EUPOL RDC/08, June 2010, available at www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/missionPress/files/100616%20Factsheet%20EUPOL%20RD%20Congo%20-%20version%208_EN.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 21.
An updated list of negative measures applied by the EU against third countries can be viewed at European Commission—Restrictive measures (sanctions) in force (measures adopted in the framework of the Common Foreign and Security Policy), ec.europa.eu/external_relations/cfsp/sanctions/docs/measures_en.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 22.
Council Common Position 2008/369/CFSP of 14 May 2008 concerning restrictive measures against the Democratic Republic of the Congo and repealing Common Position 2005/440/CFSP.
- 23.
Council Common Position 2005/411/CFSP of 30 May 2005 concerning restrictive measures against Sudan and repealing Common Position 2004/31/CFSP.
- 24.
Consilium Fact sheet (2008) EU support to the African Union Mission in Darfur—AMIS, AMIS II/08, January 2008, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/080109-Factsheet8-AMISII.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 25.
Blockmans 2008, 11.
- 26.
European Council (2001) Laeken Declaration On the Future Of The European Union, European Council Meeting in Laeken, 14 and 15 December 2001, Presidency Conclusions, Annex I, 23 www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/68827.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 27.
Council of the European Union (2007) Brussels European Council, Presidency Conclusions, 21/22 June 2007, 11177/1/07 REV 1, ANNEX I, IGC Mandate, Brussels, para 1 [hereinafter Brussels European Council].
- 28.
Treaty on European Union, Article 18 (4).
- 29.
Treaty on European Union, Article 21 (3).
- 30.
Treaty on European Union, Article 21 (3).
- 31.
See also Missiroli 2010, 432.
- 32.
Treaty on European Union, Article 21.
- 33.
See for example the German language version of Article 18 (4) Treaty on European Union: Der Hohe Vertreter der Union für Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik “sorgt für die Kohärenz des auswärtigen Handelns der Union”.
- 34.
See for example the English language version.
- 35.
See for example Nuttall 2005, 96–98.
- 36.
The differences between coherence and consistency have been thoroughly examined by Christophe Hillion who also indicates that some authors that refer to “consistency” in fact address issues of the concept of coherence, Hillion 2008, 14.
- 37.
- 38.
- 39.
Cremona 2008, 14.
- 40.
Hillion 2008, 17.
- 41.
Hillion 2008, 14–17.
- 42.
Nuttall 2005, 96–98; Neuwahl distinguishes between material and organizational consistency: Neuwahl 1994, 235–236. Cremona analyses coherences as multi-layered concept and distinguishes between rules of hierarchy; rules of delimitation and principles of cooperation and complementarity; and applies all three levels or elements of coherence with regards to vertical, horizontal and institutional coherence; see Cremona 2008, 11–36.
- 43.
Nuttall 2005, 97.
- 44.
- 45.
Nuttall 2005, 98. As Broberg notes, in this volume, vertical coherence is primarily achieved through the principle of sincere cooperation (Articles 4(3) and 24(3) TEU).
- 46.
De Vasconcelos 2009, 11.
- 47.
On the topic of vertical internal coherence between the EU and its Member States, see for example Hillion 2010, 87–115.
- 48.
Treaty on European Union, Article 24 (2).
- 49.
“Part Five on External Action By The Union”, includes amongst others a title on restrictive measures, a title on the common commercial policy and a title on cooperation with third countries which is subdivided into provisions on development cooperation, on economic, financial and technical cooperation with third countries, as well as on humanitarian aid.
- 50.
Treaty on European Union (pre-Lisbon), Article 18 (3).
- 51.
Treaty on European Union, Article 18 (3).
- 52.
Treaty on European Union, Article 18 (4).
- 53.
Treaty on European Union, Article 18 (2).
- 54.
Treaty on European Union, Article 27 (1).
- 55.
Treaty on European Union, Article 27 (2).
- 56.
Treaty on European Union, Article 42 (4).
- 57.
Treaty on European Union, Article 27 (3).
- 58.
Council of the European Union Council Decision 11665/1/10/REV1establishing the organisation and functioning of the European External Action Service, 20 July 2010, Brussels, para 1. On the role and organisation of the EEAS, see Blockmans and Laatsit (this volume).
- 59.
A detailed list can be found in Council of the European Union Council Decision 11665/1/10/REV1 establishing the organisation and functioning of the European External Action Service, 20 July 2010, Brussels, Annex.
- 60.
EUROPA Press Release IP/10/1769 (2010) A new step in the setting-up of the EEAS: Transfer of staff on 1 January 2011, 21 December 2010, Brussels, europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/10/1769&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 61.
Wouters et al. 2008, 155.
- 62.
See the contributions in this volume by Sari and Puetter.
- 63.
Treaty on European Union, Article 24 (1).
- 64.
Treaty on European Union, Article 31.
- 65.
- 66.
- 67.
See also Wessel 2000, 1152.
- 68.
Treaty on the European Union, Article 165 (3).
- 69.
See in particular Treaty on the European Union, Article 186.
- 70.
Treaty on the European Union, Article 191 (1).
- 71.
Treaty on the European Union, Article 171 (3).
- 72.
See in particular Treaty on the European Union, Article 167 (3) LTFEU.
- 73.
See in particular Treaty on the European Union, Article 168 (3) LTFEU.
- 74.
Wessel 2000, 1154.
- 75.
Council Joint Action 2004/523/CFSP of 28 June 2004 on EU rule of law mission in Georgia, EUJUST THEMIS.
- 76.
- 77.
Treaty on the European Union, Article 212 (1), 205 in conjunction with Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Article 21 (2) b.
- 78.
Hoffmeister 2008, 165.
- 79.
Hoffmeister 2008, 165.
- 80.
Council Regulation (EC, EURATOM) No 99/2000 of 29 December 1999 concerning the provision of assistance to the partner States in Easterb Europe and Central Asia. The Tacis programme was aimed amongst other things to consolidate democracy and the rule of law and ran between 2000 and 2006.
- 81.
Hoffmeister 2008, 165 and 166.
- 82.
Treaty on the European Union, Article 42 (1).
- 83.
Wessel 2007, 225–226.
- 84.
Treaty on European Union, Article 42 (4).
- 85.
Treaty on European Union, Article 42 (4).
- 86.
Treaty on European Union, Article 31.
- 87.
Treaty on European Union, Article 31 (2).
- 88.
Treaty on European Union, Article 27 (2).
- 89.
- 90.
European Union (2011) High Representative Catherine Ashton convenes an extraordinary Foreign Affairs Council, Press Release A 083/11, 3 March 2011, Brussels www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/119567.pdf. Last accessed?
- 91.
European Union (2011) EU High Representative Catherine Ashton sends fact-finding team to Libya ahead of European Council, Press Release A 092/11, 6 March 2011, Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/119614.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 92.
European Union (2011) Statement by the High Representative Catherine Ashton, on Libya, Press Release A 116/11, 19 March 2011, Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/120045.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 93.
European Union (2011) Remarks by High Representative Catherine Ashton ahead of the Foreign Affairs Council, 21/03/11, Press Release A 116/11, 21 March 2011, Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/120061.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 94.
Council of the European Union (2011) Council decides on EU military operation in support of humanitarian assistance operations in Libya, Press Release, 8589/11 PRESSE 91, 1 April 2011, Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/121237.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 95.
European Council (2011) The President, Remarks by President Herman Van Rompuy at the press conference following the extraordinary European Council on EU Southern Neighbourhood and Libya, Press Release PCE 065/11, 11 March 2011, Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/119779.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 96.
UN Security Council Resolution 1973 (2011), 17 March 2011.
- 97.
Joint statement by President of the European Council Herman Van Rompuy, and EU High Representative Catherine Ashton (March 2011) on UN Security Council resolution on Libya, Press Release PCE 02/11, A 110/1, 17 March 2011, Brussels, www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/120012.pdf. Last accessed 3 June 2011.
- 98.
Council Decision 2011/210/CFSP of 1 April 2011 on a European Union military operation in support of humanitarian assiatnace operations in response to the crisis situation in Libya (EUFOR Libya).
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Schmidt, J. (2011). The High Representative, the President and the Commission—Competing Players in the EU’s External Relations: The Case of Crisis Management. In: Cardwell, P. (eds) EU External Relations Law and Policy in the Post-Lisbon Era. T.M.C. Asser Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-823-1_8
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