Self-Defence Against Non-State Actors

Szabó, Kinga Tibori

doi:10.1007/978-90-6704-796-8_10

Kinga Tibori Szabó²

1443 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter focuses on claims of self-defence against non-state actors and the problems arising from the temporal dimension of such claims. For that purpose, the chapter first portrays the conflict between Israel and Arab militant groups in the 1950s–1970s and the initial approach of the Security Council towards armed acts carried out by non-state actors and the ‘accumulation of events’ theory. Further, attention is given to how this theory was used by other states and developed in the legal literature in the 1960s–1980s. The chapter next focuses on armed acts of non-state actors in the 1990s and the changing attitude of the Security Council towards such acts. Furthermore, several claims of self-defence made by states against non-state actors in the 2000s are examined: the 2001 US-led invasion of Afghanistan, the 2003 US war against Iraq, the 2006 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, the 2007–2008 Turkish incursion into Northern Iraq and the 2008–2009 Gaza crisis. The chapter also sheds light on the content of the ‘accumulation of events’ theory and its impact on the anticipatory and remedial dimensions of self-defence.

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Notes

1.
For a classification of political violence between states and non-state actors, see Chaliand and Blin 2007, pp. 16–23.
2.
The term ‘terrorism’ had many shifting and contested meanings over time and it is acknowledged to have a stigmatizing, delegitimizing, even dehumanizing connotation. In the light of the ‘kaleidoscopic use of the term,’ it is acknowledged by the present author that terrorism is very difficult to define (for an analysis of the use of the term, see Saul 2006, pp. 3–4). For that reason, in the present book ‘terrorism’ will be used to describe: ‘criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or ban international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act.’ SC Res. 1566 (2004) para 3. Characterizations of acts as ‘terrorist’ made by states or publicists will be put in quotation marks.
3.
Chaliand and Blin 2007, pp. 212–213.
4.
GAOR, 1st Emergency Special Session, UN Doc. A/PV.562 (1956) paras 138–145.
5.
Ibid., para 143.
6.
Ibid.
7.
Ibid., para 146. Israel used similar arguments to justify armed action against regular forces as well. In 1964 Israel carried out airstrikes against Syrian territory in response to ‘repeated acts of aggression by Syrian armed forces against citizens and territory of Israel’ and ‘threats by official spokesmen of the Syrian government against the territorial integrity and political independence of Israel.’ In the ensuing Security Council debate, the Israeli representative justified the action as a last resort and as an obligation of the Israeli government to defend the territory of the state and the life of its citizens, while the Syrian representatives coined the airstrikes as a premeditated aggression. The Syrian representative maintained that the Israeli ‘defensive measure’ was an abuse of right and that concepts such as ‘exploratory self-defence’ or ‘preventive self-defence’ should not be accepted. The Security Council failed to adopt a resolution, but the draft proposals submitted all concentrated on criticising Israel for its actions. See: UN Doc. S/6046 (1964); Repertoire, Supp. 1964–1965, Chapter VIII, pp. 139–140, 196.
8.
Alexandrov 1996, pp. 174–176.
9.
SCOR, 24th Session, 1466th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1466 (27 March 1969) paras 30, 69.
10.
Ibid., para 59.
11.
Ibid.
12.
Ibid., para 62.
13.
Ibid.
14.
Ibid., para 87.
15.
Ibid., 1467th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1467 (27 March 1969) para 6.
16.
Ibid., 1468th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1468 (28 March 1969) paras 3, 18, 34, 41; 1470th meeting., S/PV.1470 (29 March 1969) para 50.
17.
Ibid., 1467th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1467 (27 March 1969) paras 48–49.
18.
SC Res. 265 (1969) para 3.
19.
UN Doc. S/9387 (1969).
20.
SC Res. 270 (1969) para 1.
21.
SC Res. 279, 285 (1970), 313, 316 (1972).
22.
SCOR, 27th Session, 1650th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1560 (26 June 1972) para 93.
23.
SC Res. 337 (1973) and 347 (1974).
24.
SCOR, 30th Session, 1860th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1860 (5 December 1975); Dinstein 2005, pp. 247–248; Alexandrov 1996, pp. 176–177.
25.
SCOR, 30th Session, 1860th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1860 (5 December 1975) para 3.
26.
Ibid., para 5.
27.
UN Doc. S/9387 (1969).
28.
SCOR, 24th Session, 1466th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1466 (27 March 1969) para 89.
29.
GAOR, 1st Emergency Special Session 1956, UN Doc. A/PV.562 (1956) para 146.
30.
Baker 1987, p. 42; Jacobson 1998, pp. 13–14.
31.
Bowett 1972, p. 12; Blum 1976, pp. 233; Gross 1983, p. 478; Schachter 1985, p. 293; Baker 1987, p. 42; Jacobson 1998, pp. 13, 16.
32.
Both the Caroline incident and the expedition in the pursuit of Pancho Villa involved non-state actors. See supra 3.2.2 and 3.2.2.1. See also Kelly 2005, pp. 225–227.
33.
Garcia-Mora 1962, p. 114; Higgins 1963, p. 201; Brownlie 1963, p. 279.
34.
Higgins 1963, p. 201.
35.
Brownlie 1963, p. 279.
36.
See supra 8.4.1.
37.
Repertoire, Supp. 1964–1965, Chapter VIII, p. 128.
38.
SC Res. 188 (1964).
39.
See supra 8.4.2.
40.
SCOR, 19th Session, 1140th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1140 (5 August 1964) para 44.
41.
SCOR, 24th Session, 1486th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1486 (18 July 1969) paras 69–70; 1516th meeting., S/PV.1516 (4 December 1969) para 103; 1524th meeting., S/PV.1524 (18 December 1969) paras 73–74; UN Doc. S/10255 (1971); Repertoire, Supp. 1969–1971, Chapter VIII, pp. 140–145.
42.
SC Res. 273, 275 (1969); 294 (1971).
43.
Alexandrov 1996, p. 180; Higginbotham 1987, pp. 561–572.
44.
Higginbotham 1987, p. 565; Repertoire, Supp. 1975–1980, Chapter XI, pp. 402–402; ibid., 1981–1984, Chapter IX, p. 326; SCOR, 41st Session, 2684th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2684 (22 May 1986) p. 22.
45.
SCOR, 41st Session, 2684th meeting., UN Doc., S/PV.2684 (22 May 1986) p. 22.
46.
Ibid., pp. 22–23.
47.
Ibid., p. 26.
48.
SC Res. 387, 393, 402 (1976); 428 (1978); 447, 454 (1979); 466, 475 (1980); 527 (1982); 545 (1983); and 546 (1984).
49.
SCOR, 24th Session, 1468th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1468 (28 March 1969) paras 18–19 (Finland expressing concern about the loss of civilian life), 34 (France expressing doubt as to the proportionality of the Israeli action); SCOR, 27th Session, 1650th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1560 (26 June 1972) para 93 (Belgium claiming that Art. 51 allows self-defence only against a single case of armed aggression); SCOR, 30th Session, 1860th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1860 (5 December 1975) para 3 (the US calling for an analysis of the Israeli airstrikes in the context of the repeated acts of violence committed by irregulars).
50.
Bowett 1972, pp. 6–7.
51.
GA Res. 2625, Friendly Relations Declaration, Part 1. See infra 11.1.
52.
GA Res. 3314, Definition of Aggression, Article 3(g). See infra 11.1.
53.
Nicaragua 1986, para 195.
54.
Ibid.
55.
Ibid. See infra 11.4.1.
56.
Bowett 1972, p. 9.
57.
Ibid., pp. 9–10.
58.
Ibid., pp. 11–12.
59.
Blum 1976, pp. 223–237.
60.
Ibid., pp. 230–231.
61.
Ibid., p. 233.
62.
Ibid.
63.
Ibid.; Gross 1983, p. 478; Jacobson 1998, p. 13.
64.
Blum 1976, p. 233.
65.
Ibid., p. 235.
66.
Ago 1980. See also infra 11.2.4.
67.
Ago 1980, pp. 69–70, para 121.
68.
Ibid., pp. 69–70, para 121.
69.
Summary Record of the 1621st ILC meeting., UN Doc. A/CN.4/SR.1621 (1980) para 5.
70.
SCOR, 36th Session, 2292nd meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2292 (17 July 1981) paras 40, 55.
71.
Ibid., paras 56–57.
72.
Ibid., paras 65–116.
73.
SC Res. 490 (1981) para 1.
74.
Gross 1983, p. 459.
75.
SCOR, 36th Session, 2292nd meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2292 (17 July 1981) para 46.
76.
Gross 1983, pp. 458–459.
77.
SCOR, 37th Session, 2375th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2375 (6 June 1982) paras 39, 58, 65.
78.
Gross 1983, p. 459; UN Doc. S/15271 (1982); SCOR, 37th Session, 2375th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2375 (6 June 1982) paras 45–46, 65.
79.
SC Res. 509, 515, 517, 520, 521 (1982).
80.
Gross 1983, pp. 458–492; Schachter 1985, p. 293.
81.
Gross 1983, p. 487.
82.
Schachter 1985, p. 293.
83.
Nicaragua 1986, para 231.
84.
See supra 8.4.3.
85.
SCOR, 41st Session, 2674th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2674 (15 April 1986) p. 17.
86.
Ibid., 2674th–2682nd meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2674–2682 (15–21 April 1986).
87.
Ibid., 2679th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2679 (17 April 1986) p. 27.
88.
Ibid., 2674th–2682nd meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2674–2682 (15–21 April 1986); Intoccia 1987, pp. 187–188.
89.
SCOR, 41st Session, 2682nd meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.2682 (21 April 1986) p. 43.
90.
GA Res. 41/38 (1986). Franck 2002, p. 91.
91.
Greenwood 1987, pp. 933–960; McCredie 1987, pp. 215–242. Dinstein characterized them as ‘defensive armed reprisals’. Dinstein 2005, p. 229.
92.
Greenwood 1987, p. 954.
93.
Brownlie 1963, p. 279; Gross 1983, p. 478; Greenwood 1987, p. 954; Schachter 1985, p. 293.
94.
Blum 1976, p. 233; Gross 1983, p. 478; Greenwood 1987, p. 954; Schachter 1985, p. 293.
95.
Blum 1976, p. 233; Greenwood 1987, p. 954; Gross 1983, p. 478; Schachter 1985, p. 293.
96.
Blum 1976, p. 233.
97.
Greenwood 1987, p. 954; Schachter 1985, p. 293.
98.
Blum 1976, p. 233; Greenwood 1987, p. 954; Gross 1983, p. 478; Higgins 1963, p. 201; Schachter 1985, p. 293.
99.
Blum 1976, p. 235; Gross 1983, pp. 486–487; Schachter 1985, p. 293.
100.
See supra 8.4.1 and 8.4.2.
101.
SCOR, 24th Session, 1467th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.1467 (27 March 1969) paras 48–49; SCOR, 30th Session, 1860th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1860 (5 December 1975) paras 3–5.
102.
SC Res. 490 (1981); 509, 515 and 517 (1982). In SC Res. 520 and 521 (1982) the Security Council condemned Israel for renewed incursions into Beirut.
103.
Blum 1976, pp. 223–237; Greenwood 1987, pp. 933–960; Gross 1983, pp. 458–492; Schachter 1985, pp. 291–294.
104.
GA Res. 2625, Friendly Relations Declaration, Part 1; GA Res. 3314, Definition of Aggression, Article 3(g); Nicaragua 1986, para 195. See infra 11.4.1.
105.
Gunaratna 2004c, pp. 20–21.
106.
Ibid., pp. 19, 29–30. For looking into the debate on the ‘new terrorism’, see Rose 1999, pp. 131–137; Tucker 2001, pp. 1–14; Kegley 2003; Morgan 2004, pp. 29–43; Gunaratna 2004a; Duyvesteyn 2004, pp. 439–454; Howard 2008, pp. 6–22; Jenkins 2008, pp. 23–31; Murphy 2009, pp. 281–293.
107.
Gunaratna 2004c, p. 19; Gurr and Cole 2002, pp. 22–23.
108.
Blin 2007, pp. 408–413.
109.
Significant Terrorist Incidents, 1961–2003 (2004).
110.
Wright 2006, p. 177.
111.
Ibid., p. 178.
112.
FBI Headline Archives 1993 WTC Bombing.
113.
Significant Terrorist Incidents, 1961–2003 (2004).
114.
Wright 2006, pp. 237–239.
115.
Significant Terrorist Incidents, 1961–2003 (2004).
116.
Wright 2006, pp. 256–258.
117.
Wedgwood 1999, p. 559.
118.
Nairobi: Discussion and Findings 1999.
119.
Ibid.
120.
Fact Sheet 21 August 1998; Wedgwood 1999, p. 563.
121.
Fact Sheet 21 August 1998.
122.
Clinton 20 August 1998 Address to the Nation.
123.
Ibid.
124.
UN Doc. S/1998/780 (1998).
125.
Ibid.
126.
Ibid.
127.
Albright (9 September 1998) Address to the American Legion Convention.
128.
Ibid.
129.
Franck 2002, p. 95.
130.
Ibid., p. 95; Lobel 1999, p. 538.
131.
Campbell 2000, pp. 1067–1096; Lobel 1999, pp. 537–557; Wedgwood 1999, pp. 559–576.
132.
Wedgwood 1999, pp. 564–565.
133.
Ibid., pp. 563, 575.
134.
Campbell 2000, pp. 1090–1092.
135.
Ibid., pp. 1093–1096.
136.
Lobel 1999, p. 557.
137.
Wright 2006, pp. 270–272.
138.
Lobel 1999, pp. 548–555; Campbell 2000, pp. 1089–1091.
139.
Clinton 20 August 1998 Address to the Nation; Campbell 2000, pp. 1090–1091.
140.
Campbell 2000, pp. 1093–1096. Per a contrario, see Wedgwood 1999, pp. 563, 575.
141.
Lobel 1999, pp. 556–557.
142.
Gunaratna 2004b, p. 3.
143.
Wright 2006, pp. 319–320.
144.
The 9/11 Commission Report 2004.
145.
Ibid., p. 195.
146.
Ibid.
147.
Ibid., p. 202.
148.
Ninth Public Hearing, Witness, Dr. Condoleezza Rice (8 April 2004); The 9/11 Commission Report 2004, pp. 202–203.
149.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 241.
150.
UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/3 (2003) paras 37–39.
151.
Ibid., para 39.
152.
Printer 2003, p. 357.
153.
See Melzer 2010, pp. 277–301.
154.
September 11: Chronology of terror (12 September 2001) CNN.
155.
Ibid.
156.
UN Doc. S/2001/946 (2001).
157.
FBI National Press Release (13 September 2001).
158.
Bin Laden says he wasn't behind attacks (17 September 2001) CNN; Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11 (29 October 2004) CBC News; God knows it did not cross our minds to attack the towers (30 October 2004) Guardian.
159.
Beard 2002, pp. 568–573.
160.
NATO Press Release (12 September 2001).
161.
Beard 2002, pp. 568–569.
162.
Ibid., pp. 571–573.
163.
SC Res. 1368 (2001) para 1.
164.
Ibid., preamble.
165.
SC Res. 1373 (2001) preamble.
166.
Gill 2003, pp. 30–31.
167.
Transcript of President Bush's address to a joint session of Congress on Thursday night, 20 September 2001 (21 September 2001) CNN.
168.
Ibid.
169.
Ibid.
170.
Clerics answer “no, no, no!” and invoke fates of past foes (22 September 2001) New York Times; Taliban won’t turn over bin Laden (21 September 2001) CBS News.
171.
U.S. rejects Taliban offer to try bin Laden (7 October 2001) CNN.
172.
UN Doc. S/2001/946 (2001).
173.
Ibid.
174.
UN Doc. S/2001/947 (2001).
175.
Beard 2002, pp. 559–590; Cassese 2001, p. 996; Franck 2002, p. 54; Gill 2003, pp. 30–31.
176.
Cassese 2001, p. 996.
177.
Gill 2003, pp. 30–31; Ratner 2002, pp. 909–910.
178.
Ratner 2002, p. 910.
179.
Beard 2002, pp. 574–575; Brown 2003, pp. 24–25; Feinstein 2002, p. 279; Franck 2001, p. 840; Franck 2002, p. 54; Greenwood 2003, p. 16.
180.
Beard 2002, p. 575.
181.
Murphy 2002, pp. 45–46.
182.
Murphy 2002, pp. 47–50.
183.
Gill 2003, p. 30. Similarly, Brown 2003, p. 27.
184.
Cassese 2001, p. 998.
185.
See, for instance, Tucker 2001, pp. 1–14; Jenkins 2008, pp. 23–31; Murphy 2009, pp. 281–293.
186.
Beard 2002, pp. 575–578; Charney 2001, p. 836; Franck 2001, p. 843.
187.
Charney 2001, p. 836.
188.
Ibid.
189.
Franck 2001, p. 843.
190.
Higgins 1963, pp. 205–207.
191.
Brown 2003, pp. 30–32; Feinstein 2002, pp. 278–279.
192.
Brown 2003, p. 30.
193.
Ibid., pp. 30–31.
194.
Ibid., p. 31.
195.
Feinstein 2002, p. 279; Greenwood 2003, p. 25.
196.
Similar opinions: Feinstein 2002, p. 279; Greenwood 2003, p. 25. See also Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadić, ICTY Case No. IT-94-1-A, Judgment, Appeals Chamber, 15 July 1999, paras 131, 137. In Tadić the Appeal Chamber found that overall control by the state over organized and hierarchically structured groups was sufficient to deduce state responsibility. Such ‘overall control’ resided not only in equipping, financing or training and providing operational support to the group, but also in coordinating or helping in the general planning of its military or paramilitary activity. For a comparison of the Nicaragua and Tadić tests, see Cassese 2007, pp. 649–668.
197.
For instance: Beard 2002; Brown 2003; Charney 2001; Cassese 2001; Feinstein 2002; Franck 2001; Gill 2003; Greenwood 2003; Murphy 2002; Ratner 2002.
198.
Franck 2001, p. 840, 841; Gill 2003, pp. 31–32.
199.
Gill 2003, p. 31.
200.
Charney 2001, p. 837.
201.
Brown 2003, p. 43.
202.
Feinstein 2002, p. 282.
203.
Greenwood 2003, p. 23.
204.
The 9/11 Commission Report 2004, pp. 47–48, 59.
205.
Gill 2003, p. 33.
206.
Ibid., pp. 33–34.
207.
Greenwood 2003, p. 25.
208.
Cassese 2001, p. 999.
209.
Franck 2002, p. 54.
210.
Cassese 2001, pp. 993, 995–998; Mégret 2002, pp. 361–399; Myjer and White 2002, pp. 5–17. See also Reisman 2003, pp. 142–143. Reisman maintains that the development of ‘anticipatory self-defence’ was prompted by the introduction of more destructive and rapidly delivered weapons, suggesting this way that anticipatory action in self-defence was a result of post-Charter developments.
211.
SC Res. 1368 (2001) preamble. Franck 2002, pp. 66–67.
212.
Franck 2002, p. 67.
213.
The 9/11 Commission Report 2004, p. 334.
214.
Ibid.
215.
Ibid., p. 335.
216.
Ibid., p. 336.
217.
See supra 9.5.1 and 9.5.2.
218.
Bush (12 September 2002) Remarks.
219.
Ibid.
220.
Bush (17 March 2003) Remarks. See supra 9.5.4.
221.
Bush (17 March 2003) Remarks.
222.
Flynn 2008, p. 203; Henderson 2004, p. 15; Lowe 2003, p. 860; McGoldrick 2004, p. 17; Sapiro 2005, p. 360.
223.
The 9/11 Commission Report 2004, p. 334.
224.
Henderson 2004, p. 15; Lowe 2003, p. 860; McGoldrick 2004, p. 17; Sapiro 2005, p. 360.
225.
The 9/11 Commission Report 2004, p. 334.
226.
For instance: SC Res. 1310 (2000); 1337, 1365 (2001); 1391, 1428 (2002); 1461 (2003); 1525, 1553, 1559 (2004); 1583, 1614 (2005); and 1655, 1680 (2006).
227.
Sorenson 2008, pp. 33–34; Shiryaev 2007–2008, p. 80.
228.
Wrachford 2007, p. 46.
229.
Israeli jets fire on Lebanon (3 September 2003) BBC News; Wrachford 2007, p. 46.
230.
SC Res. 1559 (2004) Preamble.
231.
Ibid., para 3.
232.
Schmitt 2008, p. 127; Shiryaev 2007–2008, pp. 80–81; Wrachford 2007, p. 47.
233.
Schmitt 2008, p. 127; Wrachford 2007, pp. 47–48.
234.
Ruys 2007, p. 266; Wrachford 2007, p. 48.
235.
Ruys 2007, p. 266.
236.
UN Docs. A/30/937 (2006) and S/2006/515 (2006).
237.
Ibid.
238.
Ibid.
239.
UN Doc. S/2006/517 (2006); SCOR, 61st Session, 5489th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.5489 (14 July 2006) p. 4.
240.
SCOR, 61st Session, 5489th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.5489 (14 July 2006) p. 6.
241.
Ibid., pp. 12, 14, 15, 17; ibid., 5493rd meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.5493 (21 July 2006) pp. 17, 19 and S/PV.5493 (Resumption1) (21 July 2006) pp. 9, 19, 27, 28, 39, 41.
242.
SCOR, 61st Session, 5492nd meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.5492 (20 July 2006) p. 3.
243.
Ibid., 5493rd meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.5493 (Resumption1) (21 July 2006) p. 16.
244.
Ibid., 5497th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.5497 (27 July 2006); Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/PRST/2006/34 (2006); SCOR, 61st Session, 5498th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.5498 (30 July 2006) pp. 2–3; 5499th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.5499 (30 July 2006); Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/PRST/2006/35 (2006).
245.
SC Res. 1701 (2006).
246.
See supra 10.2.
247.
Ibid.
248.
Heinze 2009, p. 100.
249.
Schmitt 2008, p. 164.
250.
Ruys 2007, p. 293.
251.
Schmitt 2008, pp. 163–164. Per a contrario, see Kattan 2007.
252.
Wrachford 2007, pp. 88–89.
253.
Ducheine and Pouw 2009, pp. 71–72; Ruys 2007, p. 291.
254.
For details on the history of the conflict and the claims of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party, see Doğu 2007, pp. 323–356.
255.
Turkey launches major land offensive into Northern Iraq (22 February 2008) Reuters; Ground Offensive against Separatists (2008) Keesing’s Record of World Events, p. 48427.
256.
While in the 1990s the conflict unfolded in the south-eastern part of Turkey (a predominantly Kurdish region), after the capture of the PKK leader, Abdullah Ocalan, the conflict shifted to Northern Iraq, a region where the bulk of the PKK forces took refuge. Consequently, from 2004 onwards, the number of cross-border incidents had been increasing between the PKK rebels and Turkish forces. See Ruys 2008, pp. 334–335, 336–339.
257.
Ruys 2008, p. 338.
258.
Authorization of Incursions into Iraq (2007) Keesing’s Record of World Events, pp. 48219–20; Ruys 2008, p. 338.
259.
Ruys 2008, p. 338.
260.
Offensive against PKK Positions in Northern Iraq (2007) Keesing’s Record of World Events, p. 48316; Ground Offensive against Separatists (2008) Keesing’s Record of World Events, p. 48427; Ruys 2008, p. 338.
261.
Ruys 2008, pp. 339–345.
262.
EU calls on Turkey to avoid “disproportionate” army action in Iraq (22 February 2008) EU Business.
263.
UN Doc. SG/SM/11436.
264.
Ruys 2008, p. 340.
265.
EU calls on Turkey to avoid “disproportionate” army action in Iraq (22 February 2008) EU Business; UN Doc. SG/SM/11436.
266.
Verhagen (3 March 2008) Beantwoording.
267.
Ruys 2008, pp. 342–343.
268.
Ibid.
269.
EU calls on Turkey to avoid “disproportionate” army action in Iraq (22 February 2008) EU Business.
270.
Ruys 2008, pp. 339–345.
271.
HRC Report 2009, para 224; Timeline: Israeli-Hamas violence since truce ended (5 January 2009) Reuters.
272.
HRC Report 2009, para 225.
273.
Ibid., paras 227–253.
274.
Ibid., paras 230, 242 (raids), 230, 244, 245 (Palestinian groups casualties), 238, 247 (civilian casualties).
275.
Ezzedeen Al-Qassam Brigades (EQB) was established in the midst of the Palestinian Intifada (1987–1994) against the Israeli occupation. Their mission statement is available at www.qassam.ps/aboutus.html. Accessed 15 June 2010.
276.
HRC Report 2009, para 254.
277.
Ibid., para 257.
278.
Ibid., para 259.
279.
Ibid., para 262; Timeline: Israeli-Hamas violence since truce ended (5 January 2009) Reuters.
280.
HRC Report 2009, paras 263–265.
281.
Ibid., para 265.
282.
Ibid., para 267.
283.
Gaza crisis: key maps and timeline (18 January 2009) BBC News.
284.
The percentage of civilians among the casualties varies from source to source. For an outline of the various sources, see HRC Report 2009, paras 350–358.
285.
Ibid., para 333.
286.
Ibid., para 349.
287.
Ibid.
288.
SCOR, 63rd Session, 6060th meeting., UN Doc. S/PV.6060 (31 December 2008) p. 6.
289.
Ibid., pp. 9 (South Africa), 13 (Italy and Viet Nam), 16 (Costa Rica).
290.
Ibid., pp. 9 (France), 10 (Panama), 11 (Russia), 12 (UK), 14 (US) and 15 (China).
291.
Ibid., p. 14.
292.
Ibid., pp. 7 (Libya), 18 (Egypt).
293.
Ibid., p. 11.
294.
Ibid., pp. 9–18.
295.
Ibid., p. 3.
296.
Ibid., pp. 9–18; HRC Report 2009, paras 1674–1692.
297.
HRC Report 2009, para 1680.
298.
See supra 10.2. and 10.3.
299.
See supra 3.2.2.1 and 6.4.1. See also Kelly 2005, p. 225.
300.
See supra 10.5.4.
301.
See supra 10.5.5 and 10.5.6.

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Szabó, K.T. (2011). Self-Defence Against Non-State Actors. In: Anticipatory Action in Self-Defence. T.M.C. Asser Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-796-8_10

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