Abstract
The objective of this chapter is to review this history, focusing initially on the historical growth patterns and the resulting environmental consequences; then on the current control efforts around the world; and finally on the emerging efforts to transform vehicles and fuels to accommodate increased vehicle use while minimizing impacts on the environment. Progress in mitigating emissions of criteria air pollutants has been impressive, especially in the developed world. The situation with regard to climate change is particularly challenging. Transportation is already a large contributor to the problem and is a rapidly growing sector. Modest programs to reduce fuel consumption or greenhouse gas emissions from light duty vehicles are being phased in and California and the EU have initiated efforts to reduce the carbon content of vehicle fuels. But much more will need to be done with a likely shift to battery electric vehicles fueled by green electrons or fuel cell vehicles fueled by renewable hydrogen in future decades. As efforts to reduce CO2 by 70 or 80% by 2050 receive high priority, aggressive short-term actions to reduce short-lived greenhouse pollutants hold promise. The US, Europe and Japan are phasing in high efficiency PM filters which will also reduce black carbon emissions dramatically.
*The findings included in this chapter do not necessarily reflect the view or policies of the Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute Agency endorsement or recommendation for use.
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Notes
- 1.
Global warming potential is a measure of how much a given mass of a pollutant will contribute to global warming relative to the same mass of carbon dioxide which by definition is given a value of 1.
- 2.
Because of difficulty reaching agreement on the appropriate quantification, specific GWPs for these gases were not contained in the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report.
- 3.
Even though many sources emit black carbon, including gasoline fueled vehicles, wildfires, biomass burning, etc. diesel vehicles have been identified by EPA as having the strongest warming impact in the US due to their large BC emissions but small organic carbon (cooling) emissions. While the relative contribution will differ from country to country, diesels are considered an important source in virtually every country.
- 4.
Personal Communication.
- 5.
Certain pollutants which are emitted from vehicles as gases undergo transformation in the atmosphere and are converted into particles. For example, some of the gaseous nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted from vehicles chemically react with other gases and are converted into nitrates which contribute to urban PM air quality levels. Nitrates can account for as much as 20–30% of ambient PM in the US (although that fraction varies regionally).
- 6.
Some European countries are using tax incentives to accelerate the introduction of PM filters beyond the rate required by the Euro new vehicle standards.
- 7.
Similar to the secondary transformation of NOX to nitrate discussed earlier.
- 8.
PM emissions from gasoline-fueled vehicles have traditionally not been regulated because their emissions are so much lower per mile driven than from diesel vehicles. However, it is now recognized that in many countries and cities where the gasoline vehicle population is much larger than the diesel population, they are a more important source. Also, health studies continue to point to lower and lower levels of ambient PM being acceptable from a public health standpoint. As a result, PM standards from gasoline-fueled vehicles may emerge.
- 9.
The study found that the effects tended to be larger over higher speed driving than in low speed driving.
- 10.
As of early 2010, No other country is following the Japanese vehicle standards roadmap.
- 11.
The term PMx10 means that PM emissions are multiplied by ten.
- 12.
Similar agreements were also reached with the Japanese and Korean manufacturers.
- 13.
A full life cycle analysis is an effort to capture all the emissions associated with a given fuel from its extraction or harvest to refinement and transport all the way to the eventual consumption in the vehicle. Only in this way can a fair comparison be made between various fuels and can a fair accounting be made of their impact on climate change.
- 14.
If a significant portion of the vehicle fleet becomes battery electric or plug in hybrids, it will be important to produce the electricity for these vehicles using clean, renewable fuels. Otherwise the environmental benefits, especially with regard to climate impacts, will be greatly diminished.
- 15.
More than half the world’s reserves of lithium are located high in the Andes, in a remote corner of Bolivia and there are indications that the country may resist efforts to allow outsiders to control the production. Therefore there has been speculation that shortages may occur as early as 2015 unless other sources are found or an accommodation can be made with Bolivia.
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Walsh, M.P. (2011). Mobile Source Mitigation Opportunities. In: Princiotta, F. (eds) Global Climate Change - The Technology Challenge. Advances in Global Change Research, vol 38. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3153-2_6
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