Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is the main cause of mortality both in developed and developing countries, killing an estimated 17 million people each year [1, 2]. In particular, hypertension is one of the most important cardiovascular disease risk factors, accounting for nearly two-thirds of all strokes and half of all ischemic heart disease [1–3]. It is also a major risk factor for dementia, chronic kidney disease and heart failure [2, 3]. Hypertension affects approximately 67 million US adults, and another 85 million have pre-hypertension [4, 5]. The most recent estimates suggest that 7.6 million premature deaths globally (13.5% of total global mortality) and 92 million disability-adjusted life years (6.0% of the global total) are attributable to hypertension [6]. Moreover, in developed countries, 90% of adults aged 55–65 years and with normal blood pressure will present with hypertension during their lifetime [7]. Conversely, lowering of an abnormally high blood pressure is associated with significant reductions in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. However, blood pressure control requires extensive healthcare resources and, in clinical practice, most hypertensive patients are either undiagnosed, untreated or sub-optimally treated [8, 9]. Thus, considering the graded and continuous nature of the relation between blood pressure and vascular risk, international guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of arterial hypertension [8, 9] introduced the concepts of “high-normal blood pressure” and “pre-hypertension.” The respective committees recommended the identification of these individuals as they are at increased risk for progression to hypertension and subsequently other cardiovascular diseases [8, 9]. Indeed, both conditions are very prevalent (especially in obese young people), are often associated with other cardiovascular risk factors and result in a 3.0-fold greater likelihood of progression to hypertension and a 1.4- to 2.0-fold greater risk of cardiovascular events [10].
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
World Health Organization (2005) Preventing chronic disease: a vital investment. WHO, Geneva
Lawes CM, Vander Hoorn S, Law MR et al (2006) Blood pressure and the global burden of disease 2000. Part II. Estimates of attributable burden. J Hypertens 24:423–430
Mohan S, Campbell NR (2009) Salt and high blood pressure. Clin Sci (Lond) 117:1–11
Ostchega Y, Yoon SS, Highes J et al (2008) Hypertension awareness, treatment, and control: continued disparities in adults-United States, 2005–2006. NCHS Data Brief 3:1–8
Egan BM, Laken MA, Donovan JL et al (2010) Does dark chocolate have a role in the prevention and management of hypertension? Commentary on the evidence. Hypertension 55(6):1289–1295
Lawes CM, Vander Hoorn S, Rodgers A (2008) International Society of Hypertension. Global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001. Lancet 371:1513–1518
Vasan RS, Beiser A, Seshadri S et al (2002) Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men: the Framingham heart study. JAMA 287:1003–1010
Mancia G, De Backer G, Dominiczak A et al (2007) 2007 Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertens 25:1105–1187
Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR et al (2003) Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension 42:1206–1252
Egan BM, Julius S (2008) Prehypertension: risk stratification and management considerations. Curr Hypertens Rep 10:359–366
Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM et al DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group (2001) Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 344(1):3–10
Hu FB, Willett WC (2002) Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease. JAMA 288(20):2569–2578
Ferri C, Grassi G (2003) Mediterranean diet, cocoa and cardiovascular disease: a sweeter life, a longer life, or both? J Hypertens 21(12):2231–2234
Ortega RM (2006) Importance of functional foods in the Mediterranean diet. Public Health Nutr 9(8A):1136–1140
Grassi D, Desideri G, Croce G et al (2009) Flavonoids, vascular function and cardiovascular protection. Curr Pharm Des 15:1072–1084
Scalbert A, Manach C, Morand C et al (2005) Dietary polyphenols and the prevention of diseases. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 45:287–306
Lazarus SA, Adamson GE, Hammerstone JF et al (1999) High-performance liquid Chromatography/Mass spectrometry analysis of proanthocyanidins in foods and beverages. J Agric Food Chem. 47:3693–3701
Rusconi M, Conti A (2010) Theobroma cacao L., the food of the gods: a scientific approach beyond myths and claims. Pharmacol Res. 61(1):5–13
Visioli F, Bernaert H, Corti R et al (2009) Chocolate, lifestyle, and health. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 49(4):299–312
Wang JF, Schramm DD, Holt RR et al (2000) A dose-response effect from chocolate consumption on plasma epicatechin and oxidative damage. J Nutr 130: 2115S–2119S
Hollenberg N, Martinez G, McCullough M et al (1997) Aging, acculturation, salt intake, and hypertension in the Kuna of Panama. Hypertension 29:171–176
Buijsse B, Feskens EJ, Kok FJ et al (2006) Cocoa intake, blood pressure, and cardiovascular mortality: the Zutphen Elderly Study. Arch Intern Med 166:411–417
Buijsse B, Weikert C, Drogan D et al (2010) Chocolate consumption in relation to blood pressure and risk of cardiovascular disease in German adults. Eur Heart J 31(13):1616–1623
Cassidy A, O’Reillyé J, Kay C et al (2011) Habitual intake of flavonoid subclasses and incident hypertension in adults. Am J Clin Nutr 93(2):338–347
Alonso A, de la Fuente C, Beunza JJ et al (2005) Chocolate consumption and incidence of hypertension. Hypertension 46:e21–22
Cienfuegos-Jovellanos E, Quiñones Mdel M, Muguerza B et al (2009) Antihypertensive effect of a polyphenol-rich cocoa powder industrially processed to preserve the original flavonoids of the cocoa beans. J Agric Food Chem 57:6156–6162
Sánchez D, Quiñones M, Moulay L et al (2010) Changes in arterial blood pressure of a soluble cocoa fiber product in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Agric Food Chem. 58:1493–1501
Grassi D, Desideri G, Ferri C (2010) Blood pressure and cardiovascular risk: what about cocoa and chocolate? Arch Biochem Biophys 501(1):112–115
Grassi D, Lippi C, Necozione S et al (2005) Short-term administration of dark chocolate is followed by a significant increase in insulin sensitivity and a decrease in blood pressure in healthy persons. Am J Clin Nutr 81(3):611–614
Grassi D, Necozione S, Lippi C et al (2005) Cocoa reduces blood pressure and insulin resistance and improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in hypertensives. Hypertension 46(2):398–405
Grassi D, Desideri G, Necozione S et al (2008) Blood pressure is reduced and insulin sensitivity increased in glucose-intolerant, hypertensive subjects after 15 days of consuming highpolyphenol dark chocolate. J Nutr 138(9):1671–1676
Taubert D, Roesen R, Lehmann C et al (2007) Effects of low habitual cocoa intake on blood pressure and bioactive nitric oxide: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 298:49–60
Faridi Z, Njike VY, Dutta S et al (2008) Acute dark chocolate and cocoa ingestion and endothelial function: a randomized controlled crossover trial. Am J Clin Nutr 88:58–63
Davison K, Berry NM, Misan G et al (2010) Dose-related effects of flavanol-rich cocoa on blood pressure. J Hum Hypertens 24(9):568–576
Berry NM, Davison K, Coates AM et al (2010) Impact of cocoa flavanol consumption on blood pressure responsiveness to exercise. Br J Nutr 19:1–5
Saftlas AF, Triche EW, Beydoun H et al (2010) Does chocolate intake during pregnancy reduce the risks of preeclampsia and gestational hypertension? Ann Epidemiol 20(8):584–591
Taubert D, Roesen R, Schömig E (2007) Effect of cocoa and tea intake on blood pressure: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 167:626–634
Hooper L, Kroon PA, Rimm EB et al (2008) Flavonoids, flavonoid-rich foods, and cardiovascular risk: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 88:38–50
Desch S, Schmidt J, Kobler D et al (2010) Effect of cocoa products on blood pressure: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Hypertens 23:97–103
Ried K, Sullivan T, Fakler P et al (2010) Does chocolate reduce blood pressure? A metaanalysis. BMC Med 8:39
Glynn RJ, L’Italien GJ, Sesso HD et al (2002) Development of predictive models for long-term cardiovascular risk associated with systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Hypertension 39:105–110
Egan BM, Laken MA, Donovan JL et al (2010) Does dark chocolate have a role in the prevention and management of hypertension? Commentary on the evidence. Hypertension 55(6):1289–1295
Grassi D, Desideri G, Ferri C (2011) Cardiovascular risk and endothelial dysfunction: the preferential route for atherosclerosis. Curr Pharm Biotechnol, 2011 Jan 11. [Epub ahead of print]
Actis-Goretta L, Ottaviani JI, Fraga CG (2006) Inhibition of angiotensin converting enzyme activity by flavanol-rich foods. J Agric Food Hem 54(1):229–234
Schewe T, Steffen Y, Sies H (2008) How do dietary flavanols improve vascular function? A position paper. Arch Biochem Biophys 476:102–106
Persson IA, Josefsson M, Persson K et al (2006) Tea flavanols inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme activity and increase nitric oxide production in human endothelial cells. J Pharm Pharmacol 58:1139–1144
Persson IA, Persson K, Hägg S et al (2011) Effects of cocoa extract and dark chocolate on angiotensin-converting enzyme and nitric oxide in human endothelial cells and healthy volunteers-a nutrigenomics perspective. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 57(1):44–50
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer-Verlag Italia
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Grassi, D., Ferri, C. (2012). Cocoa, Chocolate and Hypertension. In: Conti, A., Paoletti, R., Poli, A., Visioli, F. (eds) Chocolate and Health. Springer, Milano. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-88-470-2038-2_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-88-470-2038-2_9
Publisher Name: Springer, Milano
Print ISBN: 978-88-470-2037-5
Online ISBN: 978-88-470-2038-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)