Abstract
The imperative for energy security is paramount for global, national and internal stability, and development. Using an indicator-based approach, the present study develops a framework for sustainable energy security of India. First, it presents the energy supply and demand situation in the country under different scenarios. Then it conceptualizes the notion of energy security and quantifies it for India with the help of different indicators for energy security available in the literature. Both the supply and demand side views and both micro and macro dimensions are considered in assessing how secured India as a country is with respect to our energy future. The dimensions that include energy security are: economic, environmental, social, and institutional. This will help planners and policy makers to understand India’s energy scene better and design policies to develop sustainable technologies and practices to ensure energy resources last long.
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Notes
- 1.
We define sustainable energy security as “provisioning of uninterrupted energy services (short- and long terms) in an affordable, equitable, efficient, and environmentally benign manner.”
- 2.
The RS assumes that demographic growth, economic development, and energy prices would continue to influence the present patterns of demand and supply. The APS, on the contrary, controls the business as usual growth in the energy demand for reasons of energy security or environmental sustainability, which includes climate-change concerns. APS encompasses the policies and practices, which consist of efficiency and emission standardization, use of alternative fuels, clean technologies, and demand side managements.
- 3.
In case of energy security, it is important to include energy sustainability. This is because the concepts of sustainability takes into consideration the sustainable use of natural resources, the sustainable distribution of natural resources (equity considerations) and maximising the quality of life.
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Appendix 1 A: Estimation of Sustainable Energy Security Index
Appendix 1 A: Estimation of Sustainable Energy Security Index
Dimension | Category | Sub-category | Indicators | Unit | Actual value | Threshold values | Normalisation | Indicator values | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High | Low | Sub-category | Category | Dimension | ESSI | |||||||
Economic | Supply security | Primary energy consumption per capita | Coal | kgoe | 500 | 2100 | 15 | 0.77 | 0.923 | 0.544 | 0.628 | 0.604 |
Oil | bbl/day per 1000 people | 3 | 103 | 2 | 0.99 | |||||||
Gas | M3 | 54 | 4315 | 30 | 0.99 | |||||||
Reserves-to-production ratio | Coal | Years | 111 | 481 | 19 | 0.20 | 0.124 | |||||
Oil | Years | 21 | 258 | 8 | 0.05 | |||||||
Gas | Years | 23.3 | 220 | 10 | 0.06 | |||||||
Import dependence | Share of energy imports | % | 33 | 90 | 7 | 0.69 | 0.562 | |||||
Share of oil imports | % | 70 | 85 | 0 | 0.18 | |||||||
Oil vulnerability index | No | 0.93 | 1.11 | 0.3 | 0.22 | |||||||
Fuel imports as a % of GDP | % | 5.9 | 30 | 1.4 | 0.84 | |||||||
Supply infrastructure | Villages connected to electric grid | % | 92 | 100 | 0 | 0.92 | 0.630 | |||||
Villages with LPG connection | % | 11 | 100 | 0 | 0.11 | |||||||
Villages with road connectivity | % | 62 | 100 | 10 | 0.58 | |||||||
Diversification | Fuel share in primary energy | Biomass | % | 24 | 47 | 4 | 0.47 | 0.660 | 0.556 | |||
Coal | % | 38 | 77 | 0.06 | 0.51 | |||||||
Petroleum products | % | 26 | 85 | 18.8 | 0.89 | |||||||
Natural gas | % | 7 | 60.1 | 1.5 | 0.91 | |||||||
Renewable energy in total primary energy supply | % | 30 | 98 | 1.6 | 0.29 | |||||||
Fuel share in final energy | Biomass | % | 31 | 98 | 0 | 0.32 | 0.427 | |||||
Oil | % | 20 | 51 | 0 | 0.61 | |||||||
Electricity | % | 13 | 22 | 0.5 | 0.58 | |||||||
Share of fossil fuels in electricity generation | % | 76 | 100 | 0.1 | 0.24 | |||||||
Share of fossil fuels in installed capacity | % | 78 | 100 | 0.1 | 0.22 | |||||||
Share of locally produced fuel as a % of total supply | % | 70 | 75 | 10 | 0.92 | |||||||
Share of renewables as a % of total power supply | % | 12.5 | 99.8 | 0 | 0.13 | |||||||
Energy intensity | National energy intensity | Energy intensity of society | GJ/cap | 24 | 325 | 8 | 0.95 | 0.870 | 0.761 | |||
Energy intensity of economy | toe/$ million (ppp) | 190 | 519 | 98 | 0.78 | |||||||
Sectoral energy intensity | Industry | koe/$ 2005 (ppp) | 0.04 | 0.1 | 0.01 | 0.67 | 0.634 | |||||
Commercial sector | koe/$ 2005 (ppp) | 0.06 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.56 | |||||||
Agricultural sector | koe/$ 2005 p | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.008 | 0.20 | |||||||
Passenger transport | MJ/PKM | 1.4 | 4.5 | 1.3 | 0.97 | |||||||
Goods transport | MJ/tonne-km | 3 | 5 | 1.2 | 0.53 | |||||||
Energy efficiency | Energy production efficiency | Coal-based power | % | 27 | 45 | 23 | 0.18 | 0.430 | 0.452 | |||
Gas-based power | % | 39 | 51 | 27 | 0.50 | |||||||
Hydro-power | % | 80 | 90 | 70 | 0.50 | |||||||
Renewables | % | 15 | 20 | 10 | 0.50 | |||||||
Oil refineries | % | 75 | 91.4 | 65 | 0.38 | |||||||
Energy transport efficiency | Power grid (T&D) | % | 78 | 92 | 70 | 0.36 | 0.482 | |||||
Oil distribution | % | 80 | 90 | 60 | 0.67 | |||||||
Coal transport | % | 70 | 85 | 62 | 0.35 | |||||||
Energy end-use efficiency (HH sector) | Biomass stove | % | 15 | 30 | 10 | 0.25 | 0.443 | |||||
Kerosene stove | 30 | 40 | 25 | 0.33 | ||||||||
LPG stove | % | 70 | 80 | 55 | 0.60 | |||||||
Electrical appliance | % | 75 | 85 | 65 | 0.50 | |||||||
Energy consumption | Final energy consumption (per capita) | Biomass energy | kg/cap | 170 | 1100 | 25 | 0.13 | 0.853 | 0.853 | |||
Oil | l/cap | 173 | 5610 | 50 | 0.98 | |||||||
Natural gas | cu.m/cap | 54 | 3163 | 30 | 0.99 | |||||||
Electricity | kWh/cap | 498 | 15600 | 103 | 0.97 | |||||||
Taxes and subsidies | Energy taxes (as a share of energy price) | Petrol | % | 48 | 76 | 42 | 0.18 | 0.161 | 0.499 | |||
Diesel | % | 34 | 75 | 30 | 0.09 | |||||||
Electricity | % | 15 | 56 | 5 | 0.20 | |||||||
Energy subsidies (as % of GDP) | Diesel | % | 1 | 2.8 | 0.8 | 0.90 | 0.687 | |||||
Kerosene | % | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.15 | 0.40 | |||||||
Electricity | % | 1 | 2 | 0.5 | 0.67 | |||||||
Social | Affordability | Energy prices | Biomass fuels | US$/GJ | 2.4 | 4 | 0.05 | 0.59 | 0.415 | 0.449 | 0.546 | |
Electricity | USc/kWh | 12 | 50 | 1 | 0.22 | |||||||
Gas | US$/l | 0.5 | 1.9 | 0.05 | 0.24 | |||||||
Petrol | US$/l | 1.1 | 2.52 | 0.09 | 0.42 | |||||||
Diesel | US$/l | 0.82 | 2.03 | 0.07 | 0.38 | |||||||
Kerosene | US$/l | 0.25 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.50 | |||||||
Share of energy expenditure in total expenditure | High income HH | % | 5 | 14.1 | 2.8 | 0.81 | 0.519 | |||||
Middle income HH | % | 7 | 11 | 1.5 | 0.42 | |||||||
Low income HH | % | 8 | 12 | 2.7 | 0.43 | |||||||
BPL households | % | 12 | 15 | 3.5 | 0.26 | |||||||
Energy connectivity | HH with electricity connection | % | 56 | 100 | 11 | 0.51 | 0.403 | |||||
HH with LPG connection | % | 25.4 | 92.3 | 1.6 | 0.26 | |||||||
Equity | Energy access | HH using kerosene for lighting | % | 42 | 89 | 0 | 0.47 | 0.586 | 0.421 | |||
HH using solid fuels for cooking | % | 56 | 96.2 | 0 | 0.58 | |||||||
Traditional energy in total HH energy use | % | 65 | 95 | 0 | 0.68 | |||||||
Energy adequacy | Household electrical power per capita | W/cap | 90 | 2620 | 28 | 0.02 | 0.103 | |||||
Household solid fuels use per capita | GJ/cap | 2.2 | 12 | 0.1 | 0.18 | |||||||
Household petroleum fuels use per capita | l/cap | 175 | 5760 | 58 | 0.02 | |||||||
Reliability | Energy rationing | Average load shedding in rural areas | h/day | 12 | 20 | 0 | 0.40 | 0.737 | 0.717 | |||
Average load shedding in urban areas | h/day | 6 | 12 | 0 | 0.50 | |||||||
Peak demand shortage (%) | 13 | 65 | 10 | 0.95 | ||||||||
Energy shortage (%) | 10 | 80 | 5 | 0.93 | ||||||||
Energy quality | Unplanned interruptions/year | No. | 35 | 6 | 82 | 0.38 | 0.696 | |||||
Household electricity consumption | kWh/cap | 498 | 15600 | 103 | 0.97 | |||||||
Noncommercial energy in total energy consumption by HH | % | 54 | 90 | 0 | 0.60 | |||||||
Environmental | Global climate change | GHG emissions | CO2 emissions from electricity | t/cap | 0.9 | 2.06 | 0.1 | 0.59 | 0.897 | 0.846 | 0.673 | |
CO2 emissions from transport sector | t/cap | 0.125 | 12.8 | 0.011 | 0.99 | |||||||
CO2 emissions from industrial sector | t/cap | 0.34 | 12.06 | 0.013 | 0.97 | |||||||
GHG emissions | t/cap | 1.45 | 44 | 0.1 | 0.97 | |||||||
GHG intensity | CO2 emissions/GDP | kg/US $(PPP) | 0.565 | 4.83 | 0.026 | 0.89 | 0.791 | |||||
CO2 emissions/kWh of power generation | kg CO2/GJ | 70 | 120 | 0.42 | ||||||||
CO2 emissions/cap | kg/US $ (PPP) | 1.4 | 31 | 0.06 | 0.96 | |||||||
Air Pollution | Energy production | AAQS (PM10) | ug/m3 | 75 | 175 | 40 | 0.74 | 0.652 | 0.716 | |||
AAQS (SO2) | ug/m3 | 90 | 175 | 20 | 0.55 | |||||||
Energy consumption | Standard for sulfur (S) content of diesel fuel in parts | ppm | 500 | 5000 | 50 | 0.91 | 0.775 | |||||
SO2 emissions per populated area | 1000 t/km2 of land area | 1150 | 21390 | 30 | 0.95 | |||||||
Air pollution index | No. | 77.5 | 97 | 28 | 0.28 | |||||||
Ecological | Water pollution | Waste water treated | % | 35 | 100 | 10 | 0.28 | 0.250 | 0.360 | |||
Water quality index | No. | 35 | 96 | 18 | 0.22 | |||||||
Soil pollution | Waste collected and adequately disposed | % | 25 | 100 | 11 | 0.16 | 0.134 | |||||
Solid waste | kg/cap/y | 150 | 780 | 75 | 0.11 | |||||||
Ecological impacts | Forest cover | % of land area | 23.7 | 90 | 2 | 0.25 | 0.555 | |||||
Deforestation attributed to energy use | %/year | 0.35 | 1.23 | 0.05 | 0.75 | |||||||
Institutional/governance | Resource governance index | Institutional/legal setting | Score | 60 | 100 | 26 | 0.46 | 0.721 | 0.721 | |||
Reporting practices | Score | 72 | 97 | 23 | 0.66 | |||||||
Safe guards and quality controls | Score | 83 | 98 | 26 | 0.79 | |||||||
Enabling environment | Score | 71 | 98 | 9 | 0.70 | |||||||
Governance of state owned companies | Score | 92 | 99 | 15 | 0.92 | |||||||
Energy sector governance (score) | Policy | Availability national energy policies | Score | 3 | 3 | 0 | 1.00 | 0.745 | ||||
Extent of implementation of energy policies | Score | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0.33 | |||||||
Quality of energy planning (integrated planning) | Score | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0.33 | |||||||
Level of coordination (how directions given at regional level translate into action) | Score | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1.00 | |||||||
Institutions | Adequacy of institutions at the national/regional level | Score | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0.67 | 0.471 | 0.657 | 0.561 | |||
PPP in energy sector | Score | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0.33 | |||||||
Efficacy of institutions for delivery of energy services | Score | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0.33 | |||||||
Legislation | Availability various acts related to energy | Score | 3 | 3 | 0 | 1.00 | 0.720 | |||||
Efficacy of implementation | Score | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0.33 | |||||||
Energy efficiency standards | Score | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0.67 | |||||||
Private sector participation | Contribution | Share in total installed capacity | % | 9 | 100 | 0 | 0.09 | 0.095 | 0.294 | |||
Share in total power generation | % | 10 | 100 | 0 | 0.10 | |||||||
Participation | Share of private sector investment in total | % | 8 | 100 | 0 | 0.08 | 0.404 | |||||
Availability of enabling framework for private sector participation | Score | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0.67 | |||||||
Share ofpetroleum refinery capacity | % | 20 | 100 | 0 | 0.20 | |||||||
Finance/funding | Financial access | Ease of access to finance for energy project financing | Score | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0.67 | 0.471 | 0.471 | |||
Ease of access to finance for energy efficiency/renewable energy for households | Score | 1 | 3 | 1 | 0.00 |
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Reddy, B. (2015). Sustainable Energy Security for India—An Indicator-Based Approach. In: Reddy, B., Ulgiati, S. (eds) Energy Security and Development. Springer, New Delhi. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2065-7_1
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