Ecosystem Services: European Agricultural Law and Rural Development

Jack, B.

doi:10.1007/978-3-662-46617-9_7

B. Jack⁵

1274 Accesses
3 Citations

Abstract

This chapter examines the concept of ecosystem services and analyses the role that the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy (“the CAP”) is playing in supporting and protecting these services throughout the European Union. The chapter begins by exploring both the nature and condition of ecosystem services before going on to examine the commitments that have been made in international and European Union environmental policies to protect these services. The chapter then provides a brief examination of the severe impact that early CAP production policies had upon ecosystems producing important ecosystem services. Over recent decades, no less than six major reform packages have been introduced and have made fundamental changes to the CAP. The most recent of these occurred with the regulations introduced on December 2013, which are intended to govern European agriculture until the end of 2020. In the light of these reforms, the chapter analyses the modern CAP and questions whether the policy measures currently available provide the degree of protection and support for ecosystem services that is envisaged by the European Union’s environmental policy. Finally, the chapter points out that, in addition to the CAP, private markets are also likely to develop, providing payments for landowners who help to protect ecosystem services.

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Notes

1.
See, for example, Grant (1997), p. 63.
2.
See, variously, Rockström et al. (2009), pp. 472–475; Lynas (2011) and Ellis (2011), pp. 1010–1035.
3.
See, for example, Barnosky et al. (2011), pp. 51–57.
4.
See Daily (1997) and Baskin (1997).
5.
Costanza et al. (1997), pp. 253–260 and 259.
6.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005).
7.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), preface.
8.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), p. 7.
9.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), p. 1.
10.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), p. 1.
11.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), p. 1.
12.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), p. 1.
13.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), p. 1.
14.
See the European Academies Science Advisory Council (2009); Fitter et al. (2010), and UK National Ecosystem Assessment (2011).
15.
Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Decision V/6 on the ecosystem approach, principle 5. http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/default.shtml?id=7148. Accessed 21 May 2014. See also Decision VII/11, adopted in 2004, on the ecosystem approach. http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/default.shtml?id=7748. Accessed 21 May 2014.
16.
Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Decision X/2: “The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets”, adopted in Oct 2010, Para. 12. http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/default.shtml?id=12268. Accessed 21 May 2014.
17.
Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Decision X/2, Para 13.
18.
European Commission (2011a), Our Life Insurance, Our Natural Capital: An EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020, COM (2011) 244 final. The Environment Council subsequently endorsed the Commission proposals on 21 June 2011.
19.
European Commission (2011a) Our Life Insurance, Our Natural Capital, 2.
20.
European Commission (2011a) Our Life Insurance, Our Natural Capital, 6.
21.
See, for example, Jack (2001), pp. 1–18.
22.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), p. 6.
23.
See, variously, Jack (2009), Chap. 2; Harvey (1997); Shoard (1982).
24.
European Academies Science Advisory Council (2009), p. 1.
25.
See, for example, European Environment Agency (2004).
26.
European Environment Agency (2006b), p. 42, referring to habitats protected by Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora, [1992] OJ L206/7.
27.
European Environment Agency (2010), p. 6.
28.
European Environment Agency (2010), p. 6.
29.
See Ruhl et al. (2007), p. 63.
30.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), p. 7.
31.
See, Jack (2009), pp. 51–62 and Cardwell (2004).
32.
See European Environment Agency (2006a) and European Environment Agency (2005).
33.
See Jack (2001).
34.
Under Regulation 1307/2013 of the European Parliament and the Council of 17 December 2013 establishing rules for direct payments to farmers under support schemes within the framework of the common agricultural policy, OJ [2013] L347/608.
35.
See Jack (2009), p. 54.
36.
It became compulsory under Council Regulation 1782/2003 of 29 Sept 2003 establishing common rules for support schemes under the common agricultural policy, OJ [2003] L270/1.
37.
Regulation 1306/2013 of the European Parliament and the Council of 17 December 2013 on the financing, management and monitoring of the common agricultural policy, OJ [2013] L347/549.
38.
Council Directive 91/676 of 12 December 1991 concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources, OJ [1991] L375/1.
39.
Directive 2009/147 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 Nov 2009 on the conservation of wild birds, OJ [2010] L20/7.
40.
Council Directive 1992/43 of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild flora and fauna, OJ [1992] L206/7.
41.
See further Jack (2012), pp. 258–273 and 263.
42.
Directive 2000/60 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 Oct 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy, OJ [2000] L327/1.
43.
Directive 2009/128 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 Oct 2009 establishing a framework for Community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides, OJ [2009] L309/71.
44.
Pesticides Directive, Art. 8(2).
45.
Council Directive 86/278 of 12 June 1986 on the protection of the environment, in particular the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture, OJ [1986] L181/6.
46.
See European Commission (2011c), Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the financing, management and monitoring of the common agricultural policy, COM (2011) 628 final/2 at Annex II to the proposed regulation.
47.
See Regulation 1306/2013, Art. 92. For details of the small farmer scheme see Council Regulation 1307/2013, Arts. 61-63.
48.
Regulation 1306/2013, Art. 59(5).
49.
Under Commission Regulation 1122/2009 of 30 Nov 2009 laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation 73/2009 as regards cross compliance, modulation and the integrated administration and control system under the direct support schemes for farmers provided by that Regulation. OJ [2009] L316/65, Art. 50.
50.
Council Regulation 73/2009 of 19 Jan 2009 establishing common rules for direct support schemes for farmers under the common agricultural policy, OJ [2009] L30/16 Art. 6.
51.
European Commission (2014) Proposals for a Commission delegated regulation supplementing Regulation 1306/2013 of the European Parliament and the Council with regard to the integrated administration and control system and conditions for refusal or withdrawal of payments and administrative penalties applicable to direct payments, rural development support and cross-compliance, COM(2014), 1476 final, Art. 39.
52.
European Court of Auditors (2009) Is Cross Compliance an Effective Policy? Special Report 8/2008. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, Para 67.
53.
European Court of Auditors (2009), Para. 71. Based upon an audit conducted in Finland, France, Greece, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal and Slovenia between Sept and Nov 2007. See similarly European Commission (2007), Report on the Application of the System of Cross-Compliance, COM (2007) 147 final, para 4.
54.
See Regulation 1306/2013, Art. 97(3).
55.
European Court of Auditors (2009), Para. 74.
56.
European Court of Auditors (2009), Paras 22–44 and 59–66. See also Birdlife International (2010).
57.
Regulation 1307/2013, Arts. 43-47.
58.
Regulation 1307/2013, Recital 37.
59.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 43(2).
60.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 43(3).
61.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 43(3).
62.
European Commission (2011a), Our Life Insurance, Our Natural Capital, 6.
63.
European Commission (2011b) Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing rules for direct payments to farmers under support schemes within the framework of the common agricultural policy, COM(2011), 625 final/2, 3.
64.
European Commission (2011b), Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing rules for direct payments, proposed Art. 30.
65.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 44(1).
66.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 44(1).
67.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 44(1).
68.
European Commission (2011b), Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing rules for direct payments, proposed Art. 31(1).
69.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 45(1).
70.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 45(2) and (3).
71.
European Commission (2011b), Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing rules for direct payments, proposed Art. 32(1).
72.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 46(1).
73.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 46(1).
74.
Council Regulation 73/2009, Art. 6 and Annex III.
75.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 46(2).
76.
European Commission, Proposals for a Commission Delegated Regulation supplementing Regulation 1306/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council, proposed Arts 24–27.
77.
Institute for European Environmental Policy (2013), Plenary Vote on CAP reform package: a bitter sweet victory for the environment, press release 19 March 2013. http://www.cap2020.ieep.eu. Accessed 28 May 2014.
78.
Hart and Menadue (2013), p. 26.
79.
Hart and Menadue (2013), p. 28.
80.
See, Jack (2009), p. 8–12.
81.
See, Jack (2009), p. 12–14.
82.
Regulation 1305/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development, OJ [2013] L347/487.
83.
Regulation 1305/2013, Art. 5.
84.
Council Regulation 1698/2005 of 20 Sept 2005 on support for rural development by the European Agriculture Fund for Rural Development, OJ [2005] L277/1.
85.
European Commission (2012) Rural Development in the European Union: Statistical and Economic Information Report 2012. Office for Official Publications of the European Union, Luxembourg, p. 369.
86.
Council Regulation 2078/92, OJ [1992] L215/1, first made it a compulsory element of every Member State rural development plan.
87.
See Regulation 1305/2013, Art. 28(5).
88.
Council Decision 2006/144 of 20 Feb 2006 on Community strategic guidelines for rural development (programming period 2007-2013), OJ [2006] L55/20, Para. 3.2. (i).
89.
European Commission (2011e), Rural Development in the European Union: Statistical and Economic Information Report 2011 (Commission, 2011), 27.
90.
Regulation 1305/2013, Arts. 28(1) and 28(2).
91.
See Buller (2000), p. 233.
92.
See European Commission (2005) and Kantor Management Consultants (2011), 202. http://www.ec.europa.eu/agriculture/evaluation/rural-development-reports/ex-poste-evaluation-rdp-2000-2006_en.htm. Accessed 30 May 2014.
93.
See Baldock and Beaufoy (1993) or European Environment Agency (2004).
94.
European Commission (2011e) Rural Development in the European Union: Statistical and Economic Information Report 2011, 159.
95.
European Commission (2011e) Rural Development in the European Union: Statistical and Economic Information 2011, 27.
96.
European Commission (2011e) Rural Development in the European Union: Statistical and Economic Information 2011, 27.
97.
Court of Auditors (2011) Is Agri-Environment Support Well Designed and Managed? Special Report 7/2011. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, Para 30.
98.
European Commission (2011a), Our Life Insurance: Our Natural Capital, Target 2, action 5.
99.
Jack (2012), p. 271.
100.
See Regulation 1305/2013, Art. 59.
101.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 14.
102.
See Buckwell et al. (1997), and Jenkins (1990).
103.
See Regulation 1305/2013, Art. 28(6.)
104.
1994 GATT Agriculture Agreement, Annex 2, Para. 12(b). http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/14-ag.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2014.
105.
Jack (2012), p. 272.
106.
See, for example, European Commission, Directions Towards Sustainable Agriculture, COM (99) 22 final, 28.
107.
Regulation 1307/2013, recital 37.
108.
Regulation 1305/2013, Art. 28(3).
109.
Jack (2015).
110.
Court of Auditors (2011), Para. 39.
111.
Jack (2015).
112.
European Commission (2011d), Art. 27(3).
113.
See Jack (2013).
114.
Regulation 1307/2013, Art. 43(a).
115.
Regulation 1305/2013, Art. 28(6).
116.
See, for example, Salzman (2005), pp. 870–961 and Pagiola et al. (2004).
117.
Irwin and Ranganathan (2008), p. 21–69, 62.
118.
Irwin and Ranganathan (2008), p. 62.
119.
Irwin and Ranganathan (2008), p. 62.
120.
McNeely (2009), p 135–150, 142.
121.
See Couldrick (undated).
122.
Perrot-Maître (2006).
123.
National Audit Office (2010), p. 13.

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School of Law, Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast, UK
B. Jack

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Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche, Università del Salento, Lecce, Italy
Massimo Monteduro
Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche; Institute for the History of Law, Università del Salento; University of Münster, Münster, Germany, Lecce, Italy
Pierangelo Buongiorno
Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche, Università del Salento, Lecce, Italy
Saverio Di Benedetto
Dipartimento di Storia, Societ a e Studi sull’Uomo, Università del Salento, Lecce, Italy
Alessandro Isoni

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Jack, B. (2015). Ecosystem Services: European Agricultural Law and Rural Development. In: Monteduro, M., Buongiorno, P., Di Benedetto, S., Isoni, A. (eds) Law and Agroecology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46617-9_7

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