Abstract
The New Culture Movement succeeded in surmounting obstacles and developing swiftly because there was an objective social need for that movement and because it found wide support in society. Furthermore, the outbreak of the May Fourth Patriotic Movement lent tremendous momentum to the New Culture Movement and enabled it to achieve remarkable results in all domains. Based on the cultural evolutions and accumulations since the last years of the Qing Dynasty, the New Culture Movement gestated and developed some important modern concepts. These new concepts merged with the concrete results of the New Culture Movement to open up new paths and lay the foundation for building up a new culture in today’s China. Ninety years later, as we look back at and sum up this period in history, we are deeply cognizant that the New Culture Movement played a truly pivotal role in the Chinese nation’s progression from a relatively closed medievalism toward open-door modernization.
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Notes
- 1.
See Geng Yunzhi (1994, p. 525).
- 2.
Memoirs of the Chinese Revolutionary Zheng Chaolin, (Part 1), p. 161. Dongfang Press, 2004.
- 3.
Hu Shih’s going to Tangshan to deliver a speech was mentioned 34 years later in an article he wrote entitled “In Memory of Wu Zhihui.” See Zi You Zhong Guo (Free China), vol. 1, issue no. 1.
- 4.
See “Letter to Hu Shih from Li Zhongxiang and Xu Wenxi,” Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 28, pp. 131–147.
- 5.
See Xi chao (Western Tide), p. 130; Taipei Ta Ful Bookstore, 1993.
- 6.
See Li Jinxi: “Outline History of the Guoyu Movement,” Collected Writings of the Nationalist Erad lithographic copy, p. 71.
- 7.
In his book History of the May Fourth Movement, Zhou Cezong cited Jiang Menglin’s estimate that 350 weekly papers were started up in the current year, Dewey said there were 300, and others estimated there were 650. Zhou himself estimated that between 1917 and 1921, more than a thousand newspapers were started up nationwide (see History of the May Fourth Movement, p. 261; Qiulu Bookstore, 1999). However, he did not specify these as vernacular newspapers. In my opinion, where specified vernacular newspapers are concerned, the estimates of Hu Shih and others who were eyewitnesses to that period in history should hew closer to actualities.
- 8.
“Chinese Literature of the Last Fifty Years,” Collected Works of Hu Shih, 2nd collection, vol. 2, p. 169.
- 9.
See The Corpus of the Modern Literature of China: Second Collection of Fiction, “Preamble,” p. 1.
- 10.
“Chinese Literature of the Last Fifty Years,” Collected Works of Hu Shih, collection 2, vol. 2, pp. 169–170.
- 11.
See The Corpus of the Modern Literature of China: Second Collection of Fiction, “Preamble,” pp. 1–2.
- 12.
The Corpus of the Modern Literature of China: First Collection of Fiction, “Preamble,” pp. 1 and 5.
- 13.
Ibid., pp. 4–5.
- 14.
See The Corpus of the Modern Literature of China: Third Collection of Fiction, “Preamble,” pp. 2–3.
- 15.
The Corpus of the Modern Literature of China: First Collection of Fiction, “Preamble,” p. 6.
- 16.
Ibid., p. 7.
- 17.
Hu Shih: “Chinese Literature of the Last Fifty Years,” Collected Works of Hu Shih, collection no. 2, vol. 2, p. 170.
- 18.
These objectives were articulated as: “Attach importance to moral education, complement this with utilitarian education and national military education, and perfect their morality with education in aesthetics.” Quoted from Yu Shusheng (2000, p. 36).
- 19.
See Hu Shih (1925c, p. 144).
- 20.
See Shu Xincheng (1962, p. 382).
- 21.
Ref. Peking University: Historical Materials, first part of vol. 2 on the university’s organization.
- 22.
Quoted from Xu Yanzhi: “Notes on Boys and Girls Studying Together at Peking University,” in Shao Nian Zhong Guo (Journal of the Young China Association), vol 1, issue no. 7.
- 23.
See Hu Shih: “On the Lifting of Bans on Girls in Colleges and Universities,” in The Journal of the Young China Association, vol. 1, issue no. 4.
- 24.
See Liao Shicheng: “Secondary School Education in China over the Last Fifty Years,” Shen Bao: The Last Fifty Years; Shanghai Bookstore, lithographic copy, 1987.
- 25.
See The Complete Writings of Fu Sinian, vol. 1, pp. 80–81. Hunan Educational Publishing House, 2003.
- 26.
See New Tide, vol. 2, issue no. 2.
- 27.
See Geng Yunzhi ed.: Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 23, pp. 304–305.
- 28.
Ibid., vol. 31, pp. 456–463.
- 29.
Ibid., vol. 36, p. 525.
- 30.
Ibid., pp. 531–532.
- 31.
See New Youth, vol. 6, no. 3, “Correspondence.”
- 32.
See Mass Organizations of the May Fourth Period, vol. 1, p. 17.
- 33.
See New Youth, vol. 6, no. 3.
- 34.
See Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 2, p. 305.
- 35.
See Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 2, p. 322.
- 36.
See Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 41, p. 511.
- 37.
Ibid., vol. 24, pp. 648–649.
- 38.
“Xinmin Society Conference Report” (No 1.), see Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 1, p. 575.
- 39.
See “New Citizen Study Society Routine Affairs Report,” (No 1.) see Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 1, p. 575.
- 40.
“New Citizen Study Society Routine Affairs Report,” (No 2.) see same as above, p. 590.
- 41.
See Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 3, p. 50.
- 42.
Ibid., p. 15.
- 43.
Ibid., p. 250.
- 44.
Ibid., p. 321.
- 45.
See Wang Guangqi: “New Life in the Cities,” Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 2, p. 370.
- 46.
“How I Shall Serve My Country in the Future,” Collected Works of Yinbingshi: Collection No. 33, p. 53.
- 47.
“Introducing the Dazhonghua,” see same as above, p. 90.
- 48.
See Geng Yunzhi (2004).
- 49.
See “Xinmin Study Society Routine Affairs Report” (No 1.), see Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 1, p. 575.
- 50.
See Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 3, p. 71.
- 51.
Ibid., p. 101.
- 52.
An article in issue no. 5 of the journal Jiang Su entitled “Construction of the New Government” explains “populist governance” as a state of affairs in which “the country’s sovereign rights are in the hands of the populace, all government affairs are determined by the opinion of the populace, the masters of governance are the country’s populace, the aim of governance is the happiness of the great majority of the populace, and the strategies of governance are derived from the public will of the populace.” (See Selections from Public Opinion in the Ten Years Prior to the 1911 Revolution, vol. 1, part 2, p. 584.) Issue no. 4 of He Nan carried an article “To Those Who Wish to Set Up a Parliament: Our Impressions,” which explicitly stood for “a country of the populace,” focused on the relationship of the state with the populace, and emphasized that the two depended upon and safeguarded one another. (See Selections from Public Opinion in the Ten Years Prior to the 1911 Revolution, vol. 3, p. 277.)
- 53.
See Jia Yin, vol. 1, no. 10.
- 54.
Hu Shih’s Diary While Studying in the U.S.A., p. 956; Commercial Press, 1947.
- 55.
“Proclamation of New Youth,” New Youth, vol. 7, no. 1.
- 56.
“Notice of Recruitment by the Peking University Popular Education Lecture Group,” Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 2, p. 135.
- 57.
“General Rules of the Peking University Popular Education Lecture Group,” see same as above, p. 136.
- 58.
See Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 3, p. 6.
- 59.
See Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 4, p. 14.
- 60.
Ibid., p. 15.
- 61.
See Mass Organizations of the Period of May 4th, vol. 2, pp. 17 and 19.
- 62.
Ibid., p. 29.
- 63.
Ibid., p. 30.
- 64.
“Letter to Hu Shih from Li Zhongxiang and Xu Wenxi,” see Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 8, p. 134.
- 65.
See New Youth, vol. 5, no. 5.
- 66.
See “Letter to Hu Shih from Hao Yuhan,” see Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 31, p. 341.
- 67.
“The Shandong Issue and Citizens Awakening,” Weekly Review, no. 23.
- 68.
Mao Zedong’s Early Manuscripts, Hunan Publishing House, 1990.
- 69.
“The Training in Cooperation and the Business of Reform,” Selected Works of Li Ta-chao, vol. 4, pp. 78–79.
- 70.
Reference may be made to Zhu Zhimin (1996).
- 71.
“A New Life of Non-Individualism,” Collected Works of Hu Shih, vol. 4, p. 174.
- 72.
“Where the New and Old Educations Diverge,” The Complete Works of Cai Yuanpei, vol. 3, p. 338; Zhejiang Education Press, 1997.
- 73.
“The Question of Education after the European War,” see same book as above, pp. 689–690.
- 74.
“The Fundamental Differences in the Thinking of Eastern and Western Nations,” Youth, vol. 1, no. 4.
- 75.
“The Fundamental Difference between Eastern and Western Civilizations,” see Selected Works of Li Ta-chao, vol. 2, pp. 204 and 205.
- 76.
“The Relationship between the Value of the Individual and Education,” Random Notes on Academics and Culture by Jiang Menglin, pp. 5, 6 and 7; China Youth Publishing House, 2001.
- 77.
“Individuality and Individualism,” see same book as above, p. 45.
- 78.
“Ibsenism,” Collected Works by Hu Shih, vol. 4, p. 34.
- 79.
Ibid., p. 24.
- 80.
Ibid., p. 36.
- 81.
Ibid., p. 35.
- 82.
“The Fundamental Differences in the Thinking of Eastern and Western Nations,” see Youth, vol. 1, no. 4.
- 83.
“Our Final Awakening,” Youth, vol. 1, no. 6.
- 84.
“The Republican State and Young People’s Awakening,” Youth, vol. 2, no. 2.
- 85.
“The State is Not the Final Goal of Life,” Youth, vol. 1, no. 4.
- 86.
“An Introduction to My Own Thought,” Hu shih lun hsüeh chin chu (Hu Shih’s Recent Writings on Learning), 1st collection, p. 635; Commercial Press, 1935.
- 87.
“Notice to Young People” The Youth, vol. 1, no. 1.
- 88.
“What Is the New Culture Movement?” New Youth, vol. 7, no. 5.
- 89.
“An Introduction to My Own Thought,” Hu Shih Lun Hsüeh Chin Chu; Commercial Press, 1935.
- 90.
“On the Scientific Spirit,” originally carried in Science, vol. 2, issue no. 1, quoted from Fan Hongye et al. (2002, p. 68).
- 91.
“Teaching Materials on Scientific Methods,” originally carried in Science, vol. 4, issue no. 11; quoted from same book as above, p. 202.
- 92.
“Science and Modern Culture,” originally carried in Science, vol. 7, issue no. 7; quoted from same book as above, p. 280.
- 93.
“On Science,” quoted from Approaching Einstein, p. 149; Liaoning Education Press, 2005.
- 94.
“Hu Shih’s Diary” March 25, 1922, see Hu Shih’s Diary (manuscript lithograph), vol. 2, Taiwan Yuan-Liou Publishing Co., Ltd. 1989.
- 95.
“One More Discussion on the Problem of Confucianism,” New Youth, vol. 2, no. 5.
- 96.
See The Youth, vol. 1, no. 1.
- 97.
“Academics and National Quintessence,” New Youth, vol. 4, no. 4; Random Thoughts (1).
- 98.
See The Complete Works of Lu Xun, vol. 1, p. 56; People’s Literature Publishing House, 1981.
- 99.
Collected Novels from Abroad: Preface, see Complete Works of Lu Xun, vol. 10, p. 163.
- 100.
“Foreword to the Periodical Scholasticism,” see The Complete Works of Cai Yuanpei, vol. 2, pp. 289–290; Zhejiang Education Publishing House, 1997.
- 101.
See The Complete Works of Cai Yuanpei, vol. 4, pp. 351–353.
- 102.
See Collected Works of Yinbingshi: Special Collection No. 23, p. 35.
- 103.
Letter from Jiang Menglin to Hu Shih (dated October 28, circa 1917), see Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 39, p. 403.
- 104.
Ibid.
- 105.
Regarding the world book series, normally the Commercial Press would have kept a complete set of files but these may have been destroyed during the war with Japan. Published materials about the Commercial Press do not contain any information about the world book series. Peking University’s archives were selectively compiled and no information in this respect has come to light. Some sketchy clues are to be found today only in the books and correspondence kept by Hu Shih.
- 106.
Ref. Peking University Historical Materials, part 3 of vol. 2, pp. 2312–2315.
- 107.
“The Raging Tide of the New Culture,” see Jiang Menglin’s Random Notes on Academics and Culture, p. 308; China Youth Press, 2001.
- 108.
See New Youth, vol. 6, no. 1.
- 109.
“The Significance of the New Thought,” see Collected Works of Hu Shih (4), pp. 152 and 153.
- 110.
Ibid., p. 154.
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Geng, Y. (2015). The Social Foundations of the New Culture Movement. In: An Introductory Study on China's Cultural Transformation in Recent Times. China Academic Library. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44590-7_8
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