Abstract
Successive years of turmoil and the chaos in intellectual circles after the founding of the National Republic made forward-looking persons start to rethink things more profoundly. Countless deaths and untold bloodshed at the end of the Qing Dynasty had prompted a change in the designation of the state power but failed to bring about a new social order, and the nation’s internal and external troubles kept multiplying. In the spring of 1915, the Japanese imperialists who had consistently cherished designs of invading China raised their iniquitous Twenty-One Demands. The news infuriated the nation and accelerated the awakening of China’s forward-looking persons. They realized that no reliance could be placed either on the government or the governance of the times, and one had to turn to the people if China’s independence were to be safeguarded and the country were to be made strong and prosperous. Meanwhile, the constitutional and revolutionary movements toward the end of the Qing Dynasty had aimed at setting up a democratic system, but since the people had not awakened and no foundation for a democratic system had been laid in Chinese society, the reality of a democratic system remained as remote as ever even though the designation of the state’s regime had changed. As Chen Duxiu put it, “we have suffered even more grievously from autocracy under the republican state system”. Hence, forward-looking persons gradually came to a common understanding: They should strive to change people’s ideological concepts, so that every person might understand his or her responsibilities and rights as an individual and a citizen; so that every person might be emancipated from the existing bonds of autocracy, patriarchy and the family clan, and so that every person should fulfill his or her duties and rights in the awareness of being his or her own master. Only thus would it be possible to lay the foundations for a new society and a new system. Based on this understanding, some forward-looking persons resolved to start by bringing changes to the ideological culture and by initiating a grand project whereby “the first-awakened arouse the later-awakened.” A certain basis for this new ideological and cultural enlightenment had already been prepared in the final years of the Qing Dynasty through the efforts of progressive personages to introduce new thinking and culture from the West and to criticize some of China’s old traditions. To these were now added the participation of growing numbers of intellectual elites who had systematically obtained a new education in and outside China. And thus arose the most ebullient, longest-lasting, broadest, and most influential cultural movement in China’s history, one that served as a major pivot in modern China’s cultural transformation—the New Culture Movement.
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Notes
- 1.
“Our People’s Final Awakening,” see Qingnian Zazhi (Youth Magazine), vol. 1, no. 6.
- 2.
“The Conflict between New and Old Thinking,” see Posthumous Works of Yuan Sheng, vol. 1, pp. 145–155 and 159–160; Commercial Press lithographic copy, 1984.
- 3.
“What I Will Do to Serve the Country in the Future,” Collected Works of Yinbingshi: Collection No. 33, pp. 53 and 54.
- 4.
“Old Thinking and the State System,” see New Youth, vol. 3, no. 3.
- 5.
Ibid.
- 6.
See Hu Shih’s Diary While Studying in the U.S.A., vol 3, pp. 832–833; Commercial Press, 1947.
- 7.
“My Crossroads,” see Collected Works of Hu Shih, collection 2, vol. 3, p. 96; Yadong Library, 1925, 2nd ed.
- 8.
“Pessimism and Self-Awareness,” Collected Works of Li Dazhao, vol. 1, p. 140; People’s Publishing House, 1999.
- 9.
“The Popular Will and Politics,” same book as above, p. 165.
- 10.
Ibid., p. 169.
- 11.
See The Complete Works of Lu Xun, vol. 1, p. 417, People’s Literature Publishing House, 1981.
- 12.
See Young People’s Magazine, vol. 1, no. 1.
- 13.
See Young People’s Magazine, vol. 1, no. 3.
- 14.
“Speech at the Shanghai Welcoming Convention for Overseas Chinese Troops,” see The Complete Works of Sun Yat-sen, vol. 3, p. 374, Zhonghua Bookstore, 1984.
- 15.
See New Youth, vol. 3, no. 3 “Correspondence.”
- 16.
About the common understandings of forward-looking persons of those times on contemporary topics and historical missions, the reader may refer to the author’s article “A Renewed Understanding of the May Fourth New Culture Movement,” carried in Chinese Social Sciences, 1989 issue no. 3, and included in The Collected Writings of Geng Yunzhi, pp. 163–190; Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House, 2005.
- 17.
See Posthumous Works of Yuansheng, vol 4, p. 189.
- 18.
“Preface to Call to Arms,” see Complete Works of Lu Xun, vol. 1, p. 417. See Hu Shih’s Diary While Studying in the U.S.A., vol. 3, pp. 759–760, Commercial Press, 1947.
- 19.
Hu Shih’s Diary While Studying in the U.S.A., vol. 3, pp. 759–760; Commercial Printing House, 1947.
- 20.
Ibid., p. 844.
- 21.
Ibid., vol. 4, p. 956.
- 22.
Ibid., vol. 3, pp. 784–785, 844.
- 23.
Bi shang liang shan (Driven to Revolt). First published in Eastern Magazine, vol. 31, no. 1 (Jan. 1, 1934); later included in New Literature in China Series: Founding Theories. Quoted from The Personal Reminiscences of Hu Shih, p. 111, Huangshan Press, 1986.
- 24.
Regarding Hu Shih’s discussions with his schoolfellows and friends on issues of the literary revolution during his studies abroad, reference may be made to my article “Hu Shih and Mei Guangdi—The significance of the Literary Revolution as Seen from their Debates,” carried in the collection of articles commemorating the Zhonghua Book Company’s 80th Anniversary, entitled The Past, Present and Future of China’s Culture, published by the Zhonghua Book Company in 1992. Also included in The Collected Writings of Geng Yunzhi, see pp. 414–443 of that book; Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House, 2005.
- 25.
These eight guidelines were (1) do not use allusions; (2) avoid old clichés; (3) do not use antitheses (parallels in prose and the lü form in poetry should be eliminated); (4) do not avoid popular words and expressions (do not shun poetry and couplets written in the vernacular); (5) respect grammar and grammatical forms; (6) do not indulge in melancholic themes without cause; (7) use your own language instead of imitating the ancients; and (8) write with substance. These eight ideas underwent some slight changes in terms of sequence and formulation in his article “A Discussion on the Improvement of Literature.” Some persons have, in recent years, expressed the view that Hu Shih’s guidelines were derived from the six guidelines of an American impressionist poet. That is pure speculation. Even though it cannot be denied that Hu Shih had been influenced by English and American literature, there are no grounds for claiming that Hu Shih’s eight guidelines were lifted from that impressionist poet. In other words, whether or not Hu Shih had ever come across the impressionist poet’s propositions, his own literary practice and his discussions and exchanges of ideas with his friends fully sufficed for him to work out his own guidelines.
- 26.
See New Youth, vol. 3, no. 2, “Correspondence.”
- 27.
Ibid.
- 28.
Fu Sinian’s main articles on the literary revolution include: “Various Aspects of the Theatrical Reform” and “More on the Theatrical Reform,” (New Youth, vol. 5, no. 4); “How To Write in the Vernacular,” “The Different Periods in China’s Literary and Arts History: A Study,” and “Roots of the Problems in China’s Literature and Arts,” (New Tide, vol. 1, no. 2); “Initial Discussion on the Chinese Language Switching Over to an Alphabetical Writing, (New Tide, vol. 1, no. 3); and “Vernacular Literature and Changes in Mentality.” (New Tide, vol. 1, no. 5.) Luo Jialun’s main articles on the literary revolution include: “The Novels Sector in Today’s China,” (New Tide, vol. 1, no. 1); “What is Literature?” (New Tide, vol. 1, no. 2); “Refuting Master Hu Xiansu’s ‘Theorem on Improving Chinese Literature’,” (New Tide, vol. 1 no. 5); and “Changes in the Thinking of China’s Modern Literature” (New Tide, vol. 2, no. 5). Yu Pingbo’s main articles on the literary revolution include: “The Three Main Conditions for Vernacular Poetry,” (New Youth, vol. 5, no. 3, “Correspondence”); “The Various Mental Perspectives in Society on the New Poetry,” (New Tide, vol. 2, no. 1); and “The Freedom and Universality of Poetry,” (New Tide, vol. 3, no. 1). The three of them also published a good many vernacular poems in New Youth and New Tide.
- 29.
See New Youth, vol 3, no. 1, “Correspondence.”
- 30.
Same as above.
- 31.
See Selected Papers by Chen Duxiu, vol. 1, pp. 108–109; Sanlian Bookstore, 1984.
- 32.
See Chang Naide: “My Views on Confucianism,” New Youth, vol. 3, no. 1, “Readers’ Forum.”
- 33.
“The Old Family and Clan System Is the Basis of Despotism,” Wu Yu Anthology, pp. 62–63, Sichuan People’s Publishing House, 1985.
- 34.
See New Youth, vol. 3, no. 1, “Correspondence.”
- 35.
See Geng Yunzhi (2000, p. 62).
- 36.
See New Tide, vol. 1, no. 1.
- 37.
See New Youth, vol. 2, no. 5; letter signed “bai + hua” (a devised character).
- 38.
“What Is Required to Be a Father Today,” see Complete Works of Lu Xun, vol. 1, p. 138; People’s Literature Publishing House. 1981.
- 39.
“Reply to Yu Songhua,” New Youth, vol. 3, no. 6, “Correspondence.”
- 40.
“A Warning to Young People,” Young People’s Magazine, vol. 1, no. 1.
- 41.
“The Fundamental Difference between Eastern and Western Civilizations,” See Collected Works of Li Dazhao, vol. 2, p. 205; People’s Publishing House, 1999.
- 42.
“Ibsenism,” Collected Works of Hu Shih, vol 4, p. 34, Oriental Book Company, 8th edition, 1925.
- 43.
“American Women,” Collected Works of Hu Shih, vol. 4, p. 61.
- 44.
“The Source of All Evils,” see New Tide, vol. 1, no. 1.
- 45.
“The Final Destination of Life Is Not the State,” Young People’s Magazine, vol. 1, no. 4.
- 46.
See New Youth, vol. 5, no 4.
- 47.
Diary of Qian Xuantong (lithographic copy), vol. 4, pp. 1716–1717, Fujian Education Publishing House, 2002.
- 48.
Published in the February 17, 1919 edition of the Shanghai Xin Shen Bao.
- 49.
Published in the March 19–23, 1919 editions of the Shanghai Xin Shen Bao.
- 50.
See Mei Zhou Ping Lun (Weekly Critic), no. 12.
- 51.
This letter was originally carried in the March 18, 1919 issue of the journal Gong Yan Bao (Public Voice) and cited in New Tide, vol. 1, no. 4.
- 52.
This piece of news was carried in the April 1, 1919 issue of Shen Bao. The present quotation is from the article “A Warning to the Conservatives” in Chen Bao (Morning Paper) and cited in Mei Zhou Ping Lun, no. 17.
- 53.
See Geng Yunzhi: “Cai Yuanpei and Hu Shih,” thesis at the International Academic Seminar in 1988 to commemorate the 120th Birthday of Cai Yuanpei, and carried in On Cai Yuanpei published by the Tourism Press in 1989. Later incorporated in The Collected Writings of Geng Yunzhi; see p. 394 of this book, published by the Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House, 2005.
- 54.
“Letter to Gong Yan Bao and in Reply to Lin Qinnan,” quoted here from Collected Writings on the May Fourth Movement, p. 224; Sanlian Bookstore, 1959. The Complete Works of Cai Yuanpei, published in 1997 by the Zhejiang Education Publishing House, changed the title of this article to “Reply to the Censuring by Lin Qinnan,” which I consider to be inappropriate.
- 55.
See the May 13, 1919 no. 17 and the April 27, no. 19 issues of Weekly Critic.
- 56.
See “Tang Erhe’s Letter of Reply to Hu Shih” in Geng Yunzhi ed.: Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 36, p. 509; Huangshan Book Press, 1994.
- 57.
See the three letters from Hu Shih to Tang Erhe; same book as above, vol. 20, pp. 104–116.
- 58.
Hu Shih was in Shanghai at end April to welcome John Dewey who came to deliver lectures in China, and had not yet returned to Beijing on May 7. For the quotation here, see Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 35, pp. 567–568.
- 59.
See Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 37, pp. 29–33.
- 60.
Ibid., vol. 39, pp. 417–419.
- 61.
Ibid., vol. 34, pp. 218–219.
- 62.
Subsequently, during the large-scale campaign to criticize Hu Shih, some persons groundlessly accused him of scheming to move Beijing University to the south with the intent of sabotaging both the New Culture Movement and Peking University. I have written a special paper to clarify this matter. See “The So-called Issue of Moving Peking University to the South after May 4” carried in the January 5, 1988 issue of Tuan Jie Bao.
- 63.
“The Cultural Movement in Zhejiang,” originally carried in the October 27, 1919 issue of Shi Shi Xin Bao, quoted from Mass Organizations of the May 4th Period, vol. 3, p. 128; Sanlian Bookstore, 1979.
- 64.
“Foreword,” Zhejiang New Tide, 1st issue, quoted from Mass Organizations of the May 4th Period, vol. 3, pp. 124–126.
- 65.
“Looking Back at Myself Over the Last Twenty-Two Years,” originally carried in the September 23, 1920 issue of Min Guo Ri Bao: Awakening; quoted from Mass Organizations of the May 4th Period, vol. 3, p. 135.
- 66.
Ibid., p. 136.
- 67.
See “Secret Telegram from Lu Yongxiang to the President and Others,” quoted from Mass Organizations of the May 4th Period, vol. 3, p. 142.
- 68.
See written by Ishikawa Yoshihiro, translated by Yuan Guangquan: History of the Founding of The Chinese Communist Party, p. 286; Chinese Social Sciences Press, 2006.
- 69.
See “Xinmin Society Conference Report” No. 1., quoted from Mass Organizations of the May 4th Period, vol. 1, p. 575.
- 70.
See New Youth, vol. 7, no. 1, “Social Survey: An Overall View of Changsha Society.”
- 71.
Hu Shih: “An Introduction to the New Publications Construction, Xiangtan Review and Sunday”, see Weekly Critic no. 36 (August 24, 1919).
- 72.
See “‘The Grand Union of the Popular Masses” (1), Xiangtan Review, no. 2.
- 73.
“The Start-up of the Cultural Reading Society,” originally carried in the July 31, 1920 issue of Da Gong Bao; quoted from Mass Organizations of the May 4th Period, vol. 1, pp. 44–45.
- 74.
See Mass Organizations of the May 4th Period, vol. 1, pp. 53–54, pp. 62–64.
- 75.
Mao Zedong: “Society’s Iniquities and Ms. Zhao,” originally carried by the November 21, 1919 issue of Da Gong Bao; quoted here from The History of China’s Women’s Movement, p. 104, compiled by the China Women’s Federation and published by the Chunqiu Press in 1989.
- 76.
“The Impact Produced by Ms. Li Xinshu Leaving Home,” carried by the February 28, 1920 issue of Changsha Da Gong Bao; quoted here from The History of China’s Women’s Movement, p. 105.
- 77.
See Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol 28, pp. 214–215.
- 78.
See Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 29, pp. 390–392 “Letters from Yi Zongkui to Hu Shih; pp. 393–400 “Letters from Yi Qunxian to Hu Shih”; pp. 462–472 “Letters from Zhao Shiyan to Hu Shih”; pp. 546–553 “Letters from Li Jinhui to Hu Shih”; and pp. 556–559 “Letters from Lu Dingheng to Hu Shih.”
- 79.
See Complete Works of Hu Shih, vol. 12, pp. 83–4.
- 80.
See Archival Materials of the May 4th Patriotic Movement, pp. 2–11, Chinese Social Sciences Press, 1980.
- 81.
See Xu Dixin and Wu Chengming (1999, pp. 1046–1047).
- 82.
See Wang Jingyu: Materials on the History of Modern Industry in China, 2nd ed. “Preface”, pp. 38–39.
- 83.
Labor Movement History Research Office of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions ed. : “Preliminary Estimate of Developments and Changes in the Number of China’s Industrial Workers Before the Liberation” (not published), quoted from Liu Mingkui ed.: Historical Circumstances of the History of China’s Working Class, book 1, vol. 1 p. 89, CPC Party School Press, 1985.
- 84.
See Liu Mingkui ed.: Historical Circumstances of the History of China’s Working Class, book 1, vol. 1, pp. 89–112.
- 85.
See Shu Xincheng (1961, pp. 367, 377).
- 86.
Ibid., p. 368 and p. 383.
- 87.
Yuan Xitao: “Elementary Education in China in the Last Fifty Years,” see Shen Bao Office (1987a, lithographic copy).
- 88.
Liao Shicheng: “Secondary School Education in China in the last Fifty Years,” see same book as above.
- 89.
See Shu Xincheng: Materials on the History of Modern Education in China, vol. 1, p. 377.
- 90.
Guo Bingwen: “Higher Education in China in the Last Fifty Years,” see Shen Bao Office (1987b, lithographic copy). The figures here were obtained by adding up the numbers of students in all institutions at and above the junior college level, as provided by Guo.
- 91.
See letters from Liang Qichao to Hu Shih, in Hu Shih’s Posthumous Writings and Confidential Correspondence, vol. 33, p. 15.
- 92.
“Introduction to Liberation and Reform,” see Collected Works of Yinbingshi: Collection No. 35, p. 19 and 21.
- 93.
See Geng Yunzhi (2005, p. 15).
- 94.
See Geng Yunzhi (2004, 1st issue).
- 95.
Note: Li Dazhao had, in the last years of the Qing Dynasty, taken an active part in the parliamentary petition campaigns launched by the constitutionalists, and therefore had deep-going connections with them over the years.
- 96.
See The Complete Works of Sun Yat-sen, vol. 5, pp. 209–210; Zhonghua Bookstore, 1985.
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Geng, Y. (2015). Rise of the New Culture Movement. In: An Introductory Study on China's Cultural Transformation in Recent Times. China Academic Library. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44590-7_7
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