Abstract
At the juncture of the Ming and Qing dynasties, a certain amount of Western learning had spread through the upper levels of Chinese society and some slight changes had taken place in the ideological concepts of a small number of scholar-officials. An ideological tendency to criticize autocratic monarchical power and patriarchal ethics had emerged in the final years of the Ming Dynasty in response to the accumulated malpractices and abuses by the centralized state power of monarchical despotism, and hints of gradual change had appeared within the traditional culture during the Qing Dynasty. In the final analysis, however, limitations in social conditions had prevented these changes from posing any fundamental challenges to tradition. The outbreak of the Opium Wars and the consequences of those wars profoundly shook China’s traditional society and traditional culture. The Chinese had come up against foreign peoples whom they had never seen before and who were radically different from themselves, and Chinese culture encountered alien cultures which posed challenges that China was as yet unable to deal with. Yet the “Heavenly Kingdom” complex and the overweening mentality nurtured over thousands of years prevented the Chinese from correctly understanding the Westerners and their mental, social, and political characteristics. Over an extended period of time, therefore, the Chinese were unable either to adjust their relationships with foreign countries and peoples in general and the relationship between Chinese and Western culture in particular, or to resolve issues of the modern transformation of Chinese culture. Below, we present some brief discussions corresponding by and large to phases in history on the evolution of the Chinese people’s ideological and cultural state of mind and their cultural mentality in the period from the Opium Wars to the Westernization Movement (1840–1894).
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Notes
- 1.
The Westernization Movement period generally refers to the years from the 1860s to the first half of the 1890s (i.e., prior to the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895). Some historians call this the Self-Strengthening Period. However, for years already historical circles in China have been in the habit of calling it the Westernization Movement period. The habitual version is used in this chapter to comply with popular practice.
- 2.
“First and Second Memorial by Qi Ying et al. Regarding the Memorial by Cao Lutai on the Circumstances of the Disturbances Caused by the People in Guangdong,” Foreign Affairs in Their Entirety (26th year of the Daoguang reign), vol. 75, p. 2994; Zhonghua Book Company, 1964.
- 3.
Fang Dongshu: Collected Works by Yi Weixuan, vol. 4, p. 13.
- 4.
See “A Collection of Opium War Literature,” (vol. 2), p. 758.
- 5.
See Illustrated Treatises on the Maritime Kingdoms, vol. 52; Complete Writings of Wei Yuan, Qiulu Book Company, 2004.
- 6.
Collected Notes on Russia: Peregrinations in the North, vol. 40, p. 44.
- 7.
Protestations from Xiaobin Studio: Opinions on Manufacturing Western Products, vol. 2, p. 42, engraved in the 10th year of the Guangxu reign.
- 8.
Zhang Xi: “Talking Points when Visiting the Foreigners”, Opium Wars (5) p. 337 in Collection of Writings on Modern Chinese History, Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1957.
- 9.
Illustrated Treatises on the Maritime Kingdoms, vol. 2, “Chapter on Maritime Defense,” Complete Works of Wei Yuan, vol. 4, p. 27.
- 10.
Same as above, p. 31.
- 11.
Same as above, p. 33.
- 12.
See Original Preface to Illustrated Treatises on the Maritime Kingdoms, same as above, p. 2.
- 13.
Yi Yin: “Memorial by Prince Gong et al on the Yi Chou day of the 9th Lunar Month of the 6th Year of the Tongzhi Reign on the Overall Management of Affairs Related to Other Countries”, Foreign Affairs in their Entirety (Tongzhi Reign), vol. 50, p. 25.
- 14.
Protestations from Xiaobin Studio: On Manufacturing Foreign Things, vol. 2, p. 40, engraved in the 10th year of the Guangxu reign.
- 15.
Ibid., pp. 40–41.
- 16.
Protestations from Xiaobin Studio, vol. 2, p. 39, engraved in the 10th year of the Guangxu reign.
- 17.
Protestations from Xiaobin Studio: My Own Preface, p. 4.
- 18.
Quoted from Dai Yangben: “Feng Guifen and the ‘Protestations from Xiaobin Studio’,” see Protestations from Xiaobin Studio, published in 1998 by the Zhongzhou Ancient Books Press, p. 58.
- 19.
“Zeng Guofan’s Memorial in Response to the Imperial Edicts on Making Use of Russian Troops to Help Quell Uprisings and Assist in Shipping Grain from the South”, Foreign Affairs in their Entirety” (Xianfeng Reign), vol. 71, p. 2669.
- 20.
Accounts about the number of Western books published by the Jiangnan Manufacturing Office differ and vary from 160 to 199. There are no less than five different versions. Used here are the records of Xiong Yuezhi in Summary of the Books Translated by the Jiangnan Manufacturing Office, see Xiong Yuezhi (1994, p. 499, footnote (1)).
- 21.
Complete Writings of Li Wenzhong: Letters to Peng Liao (2), p. 47, Jinling engraving, Yi Si year of the Guangxu reign.
- 22.
After the first year of the Tongzhi reign, Li Hongzhang frequently mentioned “Westernization” in his memorials and correspondence.
- 23.
Li Hongzhang: “Memorial on Purchasing Foreign Ironworks Machinery,” (First day of the 8th lunar month in the 4th year Tongzhi reign), Complete Works of Li Wenzhong: Texts of Memorials, vol. 9, p. 34.
- 24.
See The Westernization Movement (5), p. 45.
- 25.
See Li Changli (1998a, pp. 257–260).
- 26.
“Memorials to the Throne from Secretary Woren of the Grand Council,” Foreign Affairs in Their Entirety (Tongzhi Reign), vol. 47, pp. 24–25.
- 27.
“Memorial by the First Minister of Foreign Affairs Prince Gong et al. on the Bing Chen Day in the Ding Mou Third Month of the Sixth Year of the Tongzhi Reign”, Foreign Affairs in Their Entirety (Tongzhi Reign), vol. 48, p. 4.
- 28.
“Memorial by the First Minister of Foreign Affairs Prince Gong et al on the Geng Shen Day,” Foreign Affairs in Their Entirety (Tongzhi Reign), vol. 46, p. 4.
- 29.
Hong Xiuquan: “Hymn of the Original Way to Save the World”, see Collected Papers on China’s Modern History: Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, vol. 1, p. 47, published by the Shenzhou Guoguang Society, 1952.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Ibid, p. 92.
- 32.
Opinions differ on this matter. Based on Hong Rengan’s accounts, some people maintain that Hong Xiuquan et al. had no intention of staging an uprising when they first set up their God-worshipping church, and were later compelled to resist when the authorities arrested and killed members of the church. Luo Ergang does not agree with this version and is convinced that Hong Xiuquan et al. created the God-worshipping church to serve the needs of the uprising. I am inclined to agree with Luo Ergang.
- 33.
“Taiping Heavenly Days,” see Materials on Modern Chinese History Series: Taiping Heavenly Kingdom vol. 2, pp. 635–636.
- 34.
See Luo Ergang (1991, pp. 859–865).
- 35.
“The Sheng Xuanhuai Archives”, Telegraphy Bureau Business Charter, 7th year of the Guangxu reign; quoted from Xia Dongyuan: History of the Westernization Movement, p. 223, Huadong Normal University Press, 1992.
- 36.
Regarding the development of modern industries during the Westernization Movement, refer also to Xia Dongyuan: History of the Westernization Movement, chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, and 16.
- 37.
It was averred in the “Memorial in the Jiazhen Year by Grand Coordinator Liu Kun” that “diplomats should not be dispatched to other countries upon the orders of those countries; emplacing important ministers in distant lands is tantamount to sending out hostages.” Foreign Affairs in Their Entirety, (Tongzhi Reign), 18th and 20th day of 11th lunar month of the Guangxu reign.
- 38.
See Diaries of Guo Songtao’s, 18th and 20th days of the 11th lunar month in the 3rd year of the Guangxu reign.
- 39.
Same as above, 18th day of the 12th lunar month in the 3rd year of the Guangxu reign; and Zhang Deli: Accompanying Emissaries on Missions to Britain and Russia, 8th day of the 1st lunar month in the 3rd year of the Guangxu reign.
- 40.
See Diaries of Guo Songtao’s, 18th day of the 12th lunar month in the 3rd year of the Guangxu reign.
- 41.
“Another Memorial by Prince Gong,” Foreign Affairs in Their Entirety (Tongzhi Reign), vol. 8, p. 30; Hunan People’s Publishing House, 1982.
- 42.
Complete Writings of Li Wenzhong: Memorials, vol. 3, pp. 11–12.
- 43.
Ibid., p. 13.
- 44.
See Li Changli (1998b, p. 301).
- 45.
See Reminiscences of Qi Rushan, pp. 27–44, Baowentang Bookstore, 1989.
- 46.
See Biographical Literature (Zhuan ji wen xue), vol. 34, no 6.
- 47.
Regarding the circumstances of the Polytechnic Institution, refer also to Xiong Yuezhi: The Dissemination of Western Learning and Late Qing Dynasty Society, Chapter IV; Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1994.
- 48.
Original text from George H. Danton: The Culture Contacts of the United States and China, pp. 64 and 66; quoted from Zheng Shiqu: “Missionaries in China in the 1840s to 1860s and the Dissemination of Western Learning,” carried in Cultural Problems in China in Modern Times, Zhonghua Book Company, 1989, pp. 99–100.
- 49.
Opinions differ about the date of establishment of the Hongkong Chinese and Foreign News. At first Ge Gongzhen said that took place in 1858. According to recent textual research by Zhuo Nansheng—the Singaporean scholar who specializes in research on the history of early Chinese-language publications—the date should be November 3, 1857. Others claim the newspaper was set up by Wu Tingfang. However, Zhuo Nansheng points out that this newspaper was converted from the Xiang Gang Chuan Tou Huo Jia Zhi (Hong Kong Ship Price Newspaper) attached to The Daily Press (an English language newspaper).
- 50.
See Shen Bao, 29th day of the 5th lunar month in the 14th year of the Guangxu reign.
- 51.
See Xiong Yuezhi (1994, p. 188).
- 52.
Chronicle of Kang Youwei’s Life, see Reform Movement of 1989 (4), pp. 115, 116 and 119; Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1957.
- 53.
Liang Qichao: “On Reading ‘A Bibliography of Japanese Works’,” Collected Works of Yinbingshi: Second Collection, p. 52.
- 54.
Liang Qichao: “Preface and Notes to the Works Published by the Datong Translation Bureau,” Collected Works of Yinbingshi: Second Collection, p. 57.
- 55.
Liang Qichao: “Preface to ‘The Collectanea of Western Government’,” Collected Works of Yinbingshi: Second Collection, p. 63.
- 56.
Complete Works of Yong’an: Diary of a Mission to the Four Countries of England, France, Italy and Belgium, vol. 6, p. 3, engraved in the Ji Chou year of the Guangxu reign.
- 57.
Words of Warning in Times of Prosperity: Author’s Preface, p. 5, lithographic printing by the Shanghai Book Company in the Bing Shen year of the Guangxu reign.
- 58.
“Letter to Li Hongzhang on Raising the Standards of Studies Abroad,” Essays from the Shike Studio (vol. 1), in Ten Discussions from the Studio of Self-Strengthening Studies, lithographic printing by Wenruilou in the Ding You year of the Guangxu reign.
- 59.
Diary of Zhao Mantang, 18th day of the 6th lunar month in the 3rd year of the Guangxu reign.
- 60.
See Zhong Xuhe (1985, p. 196).
- 61.
See Words of Warning in Times of Prosperity p. 54; lithographic edition by the Shanghai Bookstore in the Bing Shen year of the Guangxu reign.
- 62.
See Luo Sen et al. (1983, p. 257).
- 63.
See Preliminary Proposals Concerning Western Affairs, p. 1, in the Ten Discussions from the Studio of Self-Strengthening Studies, Wenruilou lithographic edition in the Ding You year of the Guangxu reign.
- 64.
See “Memorial to the Throne by Minister of Office of Transmission Yu Lingchen,” The Westernization Movement (1), p. 121.
- 65.
See Words of Warnings in Times of Prosperity: Western Learning, p. 7, lithographic edition by the Shanghai Bookstore in the Bing Shen year of the Guangxu reign.
- 66.
See “Collected Writings of the Senior Official Jianwei General Zhang: Last Words,” vol. 4, p. l.
- 67.
See Foreign Affairs in Their Entirety (Tongzhi reign) vol. 47, pp. 24, 25.
- 68.
Diary of a Mission to the Four Countries of Britain, France, Italy and Belgium, p. 133, Qiu Li Bookstore, 1985.
- 69.
Words of Warning in Times of Prosperity, vol. 1, pp. 2 and 9; Bing Shen year of the Guangxu reign; lithographic copy by the Shanghai Bookstore.
- 70.
“Annals of Japan: Annals of Academics (1)” Annals of Japan, vol. 32, pp. 1, 11; printed by the Shanghai Jicheng Bookstore, in the 24th year of the Guangxu reign.
- 71.
“Additional Essays of Wang Tao,” vol. 1.; Genesis of Learning, p. 3, Shanghai Bookstore, 2002.
- 72.
“Extensive Discussion of Statecraft,” p. 1, in the Ten Discussions from the Studio of Self-Strengthening Studies, Wenruilou lithographic edition in the Ding You year of the Guangxu reign.
- 73.
Protestations from Xiaobin Studio: Discussions on Adopting Western Learning, vol. 2, p. 39; engraved in the 19th year of the Guangxu reign.
- 74.
“Postscript to Qi Yousheng’s ‘Dissertation on Change’,” Additional Essays of Wang Tao, p. 266; Shanghai Bookstore, 2002.
- 75.
Tao yuan chi du, (Correspondence of Taoyuan), p. 30; Zhonghua Book Company, 1959.
- 76.
Preliminary Proposals Concerning Western Affairs, p. 17, in the Ten Discussions from the Studio of Self-Strengthening Studies, Wenruilou lithographic edition in the Ding You year of the Guangxu reign.
- 77.
“Shao’s Words of Caution: Guides for Discipline and Rules of Conduct,” Reform Movement of 1898 (1), p. 182; Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1957.
- 78.
See Tang’s “Words of Caution,” vol. 1, Sixth Article on Discussions of Chinese Scholastics; Selected Xiao Shan Historical Accounts: Special Collection of Tang Shouqian’s Historical Materials, p. 226.
- 79.
Words of Warning in Times of Prosperity: Western Learning, p. 10, Bing Shen year of the Guangxu reign; lithographic copy by the Shanghai Bookstore.
- 80.
See Wan Guo Gong Bao, vol. 75, 3rd lunar month of 21st year in the Guangxu reign.
- 81.
Preliminary Proposals Concerning Western Affairs: Reform, p. 17; from Ten Discussions from the Studio of Self-Strengthening Studies, Wenruilou lithographic edition in the Ding You year of the Guangxu reign.
- 82.
“Postscript to Qi Yousheng’s ‘Dissertation on Change’,” Additional Essays of Wang Tao, p. 266; Shanghai Bookstore, 2002.
- 83.
“Shao’s Words of Caution: Guides for discipline and Rules of Conduct,” Reform Movement of 1898 (1), p. 181; Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1957.
- 84.
Diaries of Guo Songtao. vol. 3, p. 124; Hunan People’s Publishing House, 1982.
- 85.
Diaries of Guo Songtao. vol. 3, p. 373; Hunan People’s Publishing House, 1982.
- 86.
Words of Warning in Times of Prosperity: Author’s Preface, p. 5, Bing Shen year of the Guangxu reign, lithographic copy by the Shanghai Bookstore.
- 87.
Additional Essays of Wang Tao: Comprehending the Public Sentiment, vol. 3, p. 54, Shanghai Bookstore, 2002.
- 88.
“Parliaments,” Collected Writings of Chen Chi, p. 107, Zhonghua Book Company, 1997.
- 89.
Zhang Jingda gong zou yi, vol. 8, p. 33.
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Geng, Y. (2015). Evolution in Ideology and Culture After the Opium Wars and Up To the Westernization Movement. In: An Introductory Study on China's Cultural Transformation in Recent Times. China Academic Library. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44590-7_2
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