Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mikrobielle Besiedlung der Hände und ihre epidemiologische Bedeutung

  • Chapter
Hände-Hygiene im Gesundheitswesen

Zusammenfassung

Die Übertragung von Mikroorganismen über die Hände der Mitarbeiter auf Patienten und die daraus resultierenden infektiösen Komplikationen sind seit der bahnbrechenden Beobachtung durch Semmelweis wissenschaftlich anerkannt [113]. Auch heute werden die meisten nosokomialen Infektionen über die Hände übertragen, obwohl die Maßnahmen zur Unterbrechung der Infektionskette bekannt sind [109]. Das mag an der niedrigen Compliance in der Händehygiene liegen (Kapitel 9) oder in der Wirksamkeit der verwendeten Präparate zur Händehygiene begründet sein. Es mag aber auch an der (Re)Kontamination der Hände von unbelebten Flächen liegen. Durch einmaligen direkten Kontakt mit einer unbelebten Fläche werden 4–16% der Handfläche berührt, nach 12 Kontakten sind es ca. 40% der Handfläche [22]. Patienten auf Intensivstationen bzw. in anderen Risikobereichen eines Krankenhauses unterliegen einem besonders hohen Infektionsrisiko: durch die intensive device-assoziierte Pflege mit den damit verbundenen Eintrittspforten für Krankheitserreger, durch die erforderlichen zahlreichen Kontakte zu den Händen der Mitarbeiter und die Häufung Antibiotika-resistenter Bakterien [43].

The erratum of this chapter is available at http://www.dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55718-7_12

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 44.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 59.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Literatur

  1. Adams BG, Marrie TJ (1982) Hand carriage of aerobic Gram-negative rods by health care personnel. J.Hyg.Lond.89:23–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Aho LS, Simon I, Bour JB, Morales-Gineste L, Pothier P, Gouyon JB (2000) Epidemiology of viral nosocomial infections in pediatrics. Pathol. Biol. 48: 885–892

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Aitken C, Jeffries DJ (2001) Nosocomial spread of viral disease. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14: 528–546

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Akhter J, al-Hajjar S, Myint S, Qadri SM (1995) Viral contamination of environmental surfaces on a general paeditric ward and playroom in a major referral centre in Riyadh. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 11: 587–590

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Alfurayh O, Sabeel A, Al Ahdal MN, Almeshari K, Kessie G, Hamid M, Dela Cruz DM (2000) Hand contamination with hepatitis C virus in staff looking after hepatitis C-positive hemodialysis patients. Am. J. Nephrol. 20: 103–106

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Amato D, de Jesus Ventura M, Miranda G, Léanos B, Alcantara G, Hurtado ME, Paniagua R (2001) Staphylococcal peritonitis in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis: colonization with identical strains at exit site, nose, and hands. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 37: 43–48

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Anagnostakis D, Fitsialos J, Koutsia C, Messaritakis J, Matsaniotis N (1981) A nursery outbreak of Serratia marcescens infection. Evidence of a single source of contamination. Am. J. Dis. Child. 135: 413–414

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Anonym (1999) Empfehlung zur Prävention und Kontrolle von Methicillin-resistenten Staphylococcus aureus-Stämmen (MRSA) in Krankenhäusern und anderen medizinischen Einrichtungen. Bundesgesundhbl. 42: 954–958

    Google Scholar 

  9. Ansari SA, Springthorpe VS, Sattar SA, Rivard S, Rahman M (1991) Potential role of hands in the spread of respiratory viral infections: studies with human parainfluenza virus 3 and rhinovirus 14. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29: 2115–2119

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Asano Y, Yoshikawa T, Ihira M, Furukawa H, Suzuki K, Suga S (1999) Spread of varicella-zoster virus DNA to family members and environments from siblings with varicella in a household. Pediatrics 103: e61

    Google Scholar 

  11. Austin DJ, Bonten MJM, Weinstein RA, Slaughter S, Anderson RM (1999) Vancomycin-resistant enterococci in the intensive-care hospital settings: transmission dynamics, persistance, and the impact of infection control programs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 96: 6908–6913

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Azar MJ, Dhaliwal DK, Bower KS, Kowalski RP, Gordon YJ (1996) Possible consequences of shaking hands with your patients with epidemic keratoconjunctivitis. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 121: 711–712

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Bardell D (1989) Hand-to-hand transmission of herpes simplex virus type 1. Microbios 59: 93–100

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Bean B, Moore BM, Sterner B, Peterson LR, Gerding DN, Balfour HH (1982) Survival of influenza viruses an environmental surfaces. J. Infect. Dis. 146: 47–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Beier FJ (2000) Risk of endangering patients by hepatitis B infected surgeons: monitoring the health of medical personnel in hospitals must be evaluated. Gesundheitswesen 62: 416–417

    Google Scholar 

  16. Beltrami EM, Williams IT, Shapiro CN, Chamberland ME (2000) Risk and management of blood- borne infections in health care workers. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 13: 385–407

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Bertrand X, Bailly P, Blasco G, Balvay P, Boillot A, Talon D (2000) Large outbreak in a surgical intensive care unit of colonization and infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa that overexpressed an active efflux pump. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31: E9-E14

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Bidawid S, Färber JM, Sattar SA (2000) Contamination of foods by food handlers: experiments on hepatitis A virus transfer to food and its interruption. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 2759–2763

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Birch BR, Perera BS, Hyde WA, Ruehorn V, Ganguli LA, Kramer JM, Turnbull PCB (1981) Bacillus cereus cross-infection in a maternity-unit. J. Hosp. Infect. 2: 349–354

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Black RE, Jackson RJ, Tsai T, Medvesky M, Shayegani M, Feeley JC, MacLeod KI, Wakelee AM (1978) Epidemic Yersinia enterocolitica infection due to contaminated chocolate milk. N. Engl. J. Med. 298: 76–79

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Boyer KM, Petersen NJ, Farzaneh I, Pattison CP, Hart MC, Maynard JE (1975) An outbreak of gastroenteritis due to E. coli 0142 in a neonatal nursery. J. Ped. 86: 919–927

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Brouwer DH, Kroese R, van Hemmen JJ (1999) Transfer of contaminants from surface to hands: experimental assessment of linearity of the exposure process, adherence to the skin, and area exposed during fixed pressure and repeated contact with surfaces contaminated with a powder. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 14:231–239

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Burnie JP (1986) Candida and hands. J. Hosp. Infect. 8: 1–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Casewell M, Phillips I (1977) Hands as route of transmission for Klebsiella species. Brit. Med. J. 2: 1315–1317

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Chastre J, Trouillet JL, Vuagnat A, Jolyguillou ML, Clavier H, Dombret MC, Gibert C (1998) Nosocomial pneumonia in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157:1165–1172

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Corbella X, Domínguez MA, Pujol M, Ayats J, Sendra M, Pallares R, Ariza J, Gudiol F (1997) Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage as a marker for subsequent staphylococcal infections in intensive care unit patients. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16: 351–357

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. D’Alessio DJ, Peterson JA, Dick CR, Dick EC (1976) Transmission of experimental rhinovirus colds in volunteer married couples. J. Infect. Dis. 133: 28–36

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Daschner FD (1985) The transmission of infections in hospitals by staff carriers, methods of prevention and control. Infect. Control 6: 97–99

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Dave J, Reith S, Nash JQ, Marples RR, Dulake C (1994) A double outbreak of exfoliative toxin-producing strains of Staphylococcus aureus in a maternity unit. Epidemiol. Infect. 112: 103–114

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Davies GL, Lau JYN (1995) Hepatitis C. In: Haubrich WS, Schaffner F, Berk JE (Hrsg): Gastroenterology. 5th ed. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1995, S 2082–2114.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Demmler GJ, Yow MD, Spector SA, Reis SG, Brady MT, Anderson DC, Taber LH (1987) Nosocomial cytomegalovirus infections within two hsopitals caring for infants and children. J. Infect. Dis. 156: 9–16

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Desikan KV, Sreevatsa (1995) Extended studies on the viability of Mycobacterium leprae outside the human body. Lepr. Rev. 66: 287–295

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Dick EC, Hossain SU, Mink KA, Meschievitz CK, Schultz SB, Raynor WJ, Inhorn SL (1986) Interruption of transmission of rhinovirus colds among human volunteers using virucidal paper handkerchiefs. J. Infect. Dis. 153: 352–356

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Diekema DJ, Messer SA, Hollis RJ, Wenzel RP, Pfaller MA (1997) An outbreak of Candida parapsilosis prosthetic valve endocarditis. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 29: 147–153

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Diekema DJ, Pfaller MA, Schmitz F-J, Smayevsky J, Bell J, Jones RN, Beach M (2001) Survey of infections due to Staphylococcus species: frequency of occurence and antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates collected in the United States, Canada, Latin America, Europa, and the Western Pacific region for the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program, 1997–1999. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32: SI 14- S132

    Google Scholar 

  36. Dietze B, Rath A, Wendt C, Martiny H (2001) Survival of MRSA on sterile goods packaging. J. Hosp. Infect. 49: 255–261

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Döring G, Jansen S, Noll H, Grupp H, Frank F, Botzenhart K, Magdorf K, Wahn U (1996) Distribution and transmission of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia in a hospital ward. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 21: 90–100

    Google Scholar 

  38. Ehrenkranz NJ, Alfonso BC (1991) Failure of bland soap handwash to prevent hand transfer of patient bacteria to urethral catheters. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 12: 654–662

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Evans CA, Smith WM, Johnston EA, Giblett ER (1950) Bacterial flora of the normal human skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 15: 305–324

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Flournoy DJ, Muchmore HG, Francis EB (1979) Nosocomial infection linked to handwashing. Hospitals 53: 105–107

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Foca M, Jakob K, Whittier S, Delia Latta P, Factor S, Rubenstein D, Saiman L (2000) Endemic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in a neonatal intensive care unit. N. Engl. J. Med. 343: 695–700

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Forslund O, Nordin P, Hansson BG (2000) Mucosal human papillomavirus types in squamous cell carcinomas of the uterine cervix and subsequently on fingers. Br. J. Dermatol. 142: 1148–1153

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Fridkin SK, Gaynes RP (1999) Antimicrobial resistance in intensive care units. Clin. Chest Med. 20: 303–316

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Friedman CR, Torigian C, Shillam PJ, Hoffman RE, Heltzel D, Beebe JL, Malcolm G, DeWitt WE, Hutwagner L, Griffin PM (1998) An outbreak of salmonellosis among children attending a reptile exhibit at a zoo. J. Ped. 132: 802–807

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Getchell-White SI, Donowitz LG, Groschel DH (1989) The inanimate environment of an intensive care unit as a potential source of nosocomial bacteria: evidence for long survival of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 10: 402–407

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Goldsmith I, Lip GY, Khan F, Hutton R, Patel RL (1998) Contamination of the surgeon’s bare and gloved fingertips in cardiac operations. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 52: 529–532

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Gorham P, Millar M, Godwin PGR (1988) Clostridial hand-carriage and neonatal necrotising enterocolitis. J. Hosp. Infect. 12: 139–141

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Graf W, Mönius W (1977) Staphylokokkenübertragung von Nase auf Hand und Brille, ein Hospitalismusproblem. Zbl. Bakt. Hyg., I. Abt. Orig. B. 164: 127–137

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Graman PS, Hall CB (1989) Nosocomial viral respiratory infections. Semin. Respir. Med. 4: 253–260

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Gwaltney JM, Moskalski PB, Hendley JO (1978) Hand-to-hand transmission of rhinovirus colds. Ann. Intern. Med. 88: 463–467

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Gwaltney JM, Moskalski PB, Hendley JO (1980) Interruption of experimental rhinovirus transmission. J. Infect. Dis. 142: 811–815

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Harbarth S, Sudre P, Dharan S, Cadenas M, Pittet D (1999) Outbreak of Enterobacter cloacae related to understating, overcrowding, and poor hygiene practices. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 20: 598–603

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Hayden GF, Hendley JO, Gwaltney JM (1985) The effect of placebo and virucidal paper handkerchiefs on viral contamination of the hand and transmission of experimental rhinoviral infection. J. Infect. Dis. 152:403–407

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Hayden MK (2000) Insights into the epidemiology and control of infection with vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31: 1058–1065

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Hedderwick SA, McNeil SA, Lyons MJ, Kauffman CA (2000) Pathogenic organisms associated with artificial fingernails worn by health care workers. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 21: 505–509

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Herwaldt LA (1999) Control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the hospital setting. Am. J. Med. 106: 11S-18S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Huang Y-C, Lin T-Y, Leu H-S, Wu J-L, Wu JH (1998) Yeast carriage on hands of hospital personnel working in intensive care units. J. Hosp. Infect. 39: 47–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Hutto C, Little EA, Ricks R, Lee JD, Pass RF (1986) Isolation of cytomegalovirus from toys and hands in a day care center. J. Infect. Dis. 154: 527–530

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Isenberg HD, Tucci V, Cintron F, Singer C, Weinstein GS, Tyras DH (1989) Single-source outbreak of Candida tropicalis complicating coronary bypass surgery. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27: 2426–2428

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Jacques L, Mathieu D, Baumann F, Roussel A (1983) Bacterial study of the hands and the use of soap in the hospital environment. Biomed. Pharmacother. 37: 415–418

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Jernigan JA, Lowry BS, Hayden FG, Kyger SA, Conway BP, Groschel DH, Farr BM (1993) Adenovirus type 8 epidemic keratoconjunctivitis in an eye clinic: risk factors and control. J. Infect. Dis. 167: 1307–1313

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Kampf G, Gastmeier P, Wischnewski N, Schlingmann J, Schumacher M, Daschner F, Rüden H (1996) Nosokomiale Infektionen in Deutschland — Erfassung und Prävention. NIDEP-Studie, Teil 1: Zur Prävalenz in der Chirurgie. Chirurg 67: 637–642

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Kampf G, Schumacher M, Daschner F, Rüden H (1996) Postoperative Wundinfektionen in der Chirurgie — Prävalenz in Deutschland (NIDEP-Studie). Langenbecks Arch. Chir. 113: 698–703

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Kampf G, Wischnewski N, Schulgen G, Schumacher M, Daschner F (1998) Prevalence and risk factors for nosocomial lower respiratory tract infections in German hospitals. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 51:485–502

    Google Scholar 

  65. Kim JM, Park ES, Jeong JS, Kim KM, Kim JM, Oh HS, Yoon SW, Chang HS, Lee SI, Lee MS, Song JH, Kang MW, Park SC, Choe KW, Pai CH (2000) Multicenter surveillance study for nosocomial infections in major hospitals in Korea. Nosocomial infection surveillance committee of the Korean Society for Nosocomial Infection Control. Am. J. Infect. Control 28: 454–458

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Knittle MA, Eitzman DV, Baer H (1975) Role of hand contamination of personnel in the epidemiology of gram-negative nosocomial infections. J. Ped. 86: 433–437

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Kominos SD, Copeland CE, Grosiak B (1972) Mode of transmission ofPseudomonas aeruginosa in a burn unit and an intensive care unit in a general hospital. Appl. Microbiol. 23: 309–312

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Kralj N, Hofmann F, Michaelis M, Berthold H (1998) Current hepatitis B epidemiology in Germany. Gesundheitswesen 60: 450–455

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Lark RL, VanderHyde K, Deeb GM, Dietrich S, Massey JP, Chenoweth C (2001) An outbreak of coagulase-negative staphylococcal surgical-site infections following aortic valve replacement. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 22: 618–623

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Larson EL (1981) Persistant carriage of gram-negative bacteria on hands. Am. J. Infect. Control 9: 112–119

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Layton MC, Perez M, Heald P, Patterson JE (1993) An outbreak of mupirocin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on a dermatology ward associated with an environmental reservoir. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 14: 369–375

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Lee YL, Cesario T, Lee R, Nothvogel S, Nassar J, Farsad N, Thrupp L (1994) Colonization by Staphylococcus species resistant to methicillin or quinolone on hands of medical personnel in a skillednursing facility. Am. J. Infect. Control 22: 346–351

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Lindsey JO, Martin WT, Sonnenwirth AC, Bennett JV (1976) An outbreak of nosocomial Proteus rettgeri urinary tract infection. Am. J. Epidemiol. 103: 2461–2469

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Loiwal V, Kumar A, Gupta P, Gomber S, Ramachandran VG (1999) Enterobacter aerogenes outbreak in a neonatal nursery. Pediatr. Int. 41: 157–161

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Lowbury EJL (1969) Gram-negative bacilli on the skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 81: 55–61

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Lyytikainen O, Koljalg S, Harma M, Vuopio-Varkila J (1995) Outbreak caused by two multi-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii clones in a burns unit: emergence of resistance to imipenem. J. Hosp. In- fect. 31: 41–54

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Malik RK, Montecalvo MA, Reale MR, Li K, Maw M, Munoz JL, Gedris C, van Horn K, Carnevale KA, Levi MH, Dweck HS (1999) Epidemiology and control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a regional neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 18: 352–356

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Marples RR, Towers AG (1979) A laboratory model for the investigation of contact transfer of microorganisms. J. Hyg., Camb. 82: 237–248

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Martin MA (1994) Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: the persistent resistant nosocomial pathogen. Curr. Clin. Top. Infect. Dis. 14: 170–191

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Martone WJ (1998) Spread of vancomycin-resistant enterococci: why did it happen in the United States Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 19: 539–545

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Mayon-White RT, Ducel G, Kereselidze T, Tikomirov E (1988) An international survey of the prevalence of hospital-acquired infection. J. Hosp. Infect. 11: 43–48

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Mbithi JN, Springthorpe VS, Boulet JR, Sattar SA (1992) Survival of hepatitis A virus on human hands and its transfer on contact with animate an inanimate surfaces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30: 757–763

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Mbithi JN, Springthorpe VS, Sattar SA (1993) Comparative in vivo efficiencies of hand-washing agents against hepatitis A virus (HM-175) and poliovirus type 1 (Sabin). Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 3463–3469

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. McBride ME, Montes LF, Fahlberg WJ, Knox JM (1975) Microbial flora of nurses’ hands. III. The relationship between staphylococcal skin populations and persistence of carriage. Int. J. Dermatol. 14: 129–135

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. McCarthy JM, Flam MS, Pullen G, Jones R, Kassel SH (1986) Outbreak of primary cutaneous aspergillosis related to intravenous arm boards. J. Ped. 108: 721–724

    Google Scholar 

  86. McFarland LV, Mulligan ME, Kwok RYY, Stamm WE (1989) Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 320: 204–210

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. McFarland LV, Stamm WE (1986) Review of Clostridium difficile-associated diseases. Am. J. Infect. Control 14: 99–109

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Montes LF, Wilborn WH (1969) Location of bacterial skin flora. Br. J. Dermatol. 81: 23–26

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Murphy TV, Clements JF, Petroni M, Coury S, Stetler L (1989) Haemophilus influenzae type b in respiratory secretions. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 8: 148–151

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Murray BE (1990) The life and times of the Enterococcus. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 3: 46–65

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Musa EK, Desai N, Casewell MW (1990) The survival of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus inoculated on fingertips and on formica. J. Hosp. Infect. 15: 219–227

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Naver LP, Gottrup F (2000) Incidence of glove perforations in gastrointestinal surgery and the protective effect of double gloves: a prospective, randomised controlled study. Eur. J. Surg. 166: 293–295

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Noskin GA, Stosor V, Cooper I, Peterson LR (1995) Recovery of vancomycin-resistant enterococci on fingertips and environmental surfaces. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 16: 577–581

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Opal SM, Mayer KH, Stenberg MJ, Blazek JE, Mikolich DJ, Dickensheets DL, Lyhte LW, Trudel RR, Musser JM (1990) Frequent acquisition of multiple strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by healthcare workers in an endemic hospital environment. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 11:479–485

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Parry MF, Hutchinson JH, Brown NA, Wu CH, Estreller L (1980) Gram-negative sepsis in neonates: a nersery outbreak due to hand carriage of Citrobacter diversus. Pediatrics 65: 1105–1109

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Passaro DJ, Waring L, Armstrong R, Bolding F, Bouvier B, Rosenberg J, Reingold AW, McQuitty M, Philpott SM, Jarvis WR, Werner SB, Tompkins LS, Vugia DJ (1997) Postoperative Serratia marcescens wound infections traced to an out-of-hospital source. J. Infect. Dis. 175: 992–995

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Patrick DR, Findon G, Miller TE (1997) Residual moisture determines the level of touch-contact-associated bacterial transfer following hand washing. Epidemiol. Infect. 119: 319–325

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Pegues DA, Schidlow DV, Tablan OC, Carson LA, Clark NC, Jarvis WR (1994) Possible nosocomial transmission of Pseudomonas cepacia in patients with cystic fibrosis. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 148: 805–812

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Peltroche-Llacsahuanga H, Haase G, Lutticken R (1998) Methicillin-resistente Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) — Klinische Implikationen. Chirurg 69: 801–805

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Pickering H, Rose G (1988) Nasal and hand carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae in children and mothers in the Tari Basin of Papua New Guinea. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 82: 911–913

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Pillay DG, Karas JA, Pillay A, Sturm AW (1997) Nosocomial transmission of Shigella dysenteriae type 1. J. Hosp. Infect. 37: 199–205

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Pittet D, Dharan S, Touveneau S, Sauvan V, Perneger TV (1999) Bacterial contamination of the hands of hospital staff during routine patient care. Arch. Int. Med. 159: 821–826

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Price PB (1938) The bacteriology of normal skin: a new quantitative test applied to a study of the bacterial flora and the disinfectant action of mechanical cleansing. J. Infect. Dis. 63: 301–318

    Google Scholar 

  104. Purssell E (1996) Preventing nosocomial infection in paediatric wards. J. Clin. Nurs. 5: 313–318

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Rafferty KM, Pancoast SJ (1984) Brief report: bacteriological sampling of telephones and other hospital staff hand-contact objects. Infect. Control 5: 533–535

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Rangel-Frausto MS, Houston AK, Bale MJ, Fu C, Wenzel RP (1994) An experimental model for study of Candida survival and transmission in human volunteers. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 13: 590–595

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Reboli AC, John JF, Levkoff AH (1989) Epidemic methicillin-gentamicin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal intensive care unit. Am. J. Dis. Child. 143: 34–39

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. 108. Reed SE (1975) Proceedings: rhinovirus contamination of the hands. J. Med. Microbiol. 8: Piv

    Google Scholar 

  109. Reybrouck G (1983) Role of hands in the spread of nosocomial infections. 1. J. Hosp. Infect. 4: 103–110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Richards MJ, Edwards JR, Culver DH, Gaynes RP (1999) Nosocomial infections in medical intensive care units in the United States. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Crit. Care Med. 27: 887–892

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Ross RS, Viazov S, Gross T, Hofmann F, Seipp H-M, Roggendorf M (2000) Transmission of hepatitis C virus from a patient to an anesthesiologist assitant to five patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 343: 1851–1854

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Rotter M (1990) Hygiene der Hände. Z. gesamte Hyg. 36: 77–79

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Rotter ML (1997) 150 Jahre Händedesinfektion - Semmelweis’ Erbe. Hyg. Med. 22: 332–339

    Google Scholar 

  114. Rotter ML (1999) Hand washing and hand disinfection. In: Mayhall CG (Hrsg): Hospital epidemiology and infection control. 2nd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 1999, S 1339–1355.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Rüden H, Daschner F, Schumacher M. Nosokomiale Infektionen in Deutschland: Erfassung und Prävention (NIDEP-Studie). Teil 1: Prävalenz nosokomialer Infektionen; Qualitätssicherung in der Krankenhaushygiene. Baden-Baden: Nomos-Verlagsgesellschaft; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Samore MH, Venkataraman L, DeGirolami PC, Arbeit RD, Karchmer AW (1996) Clinical and molecular epidemiology of sporadic and clustered cases of nosocomial Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Am. J. Med. 100: 32–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Sartor C, Jacomo V, Duvivier C, Tissot-Dupont H, Sambuc R, Drancourt M (2000) Nosocomial Serratia marcescens infections associated with extrinsic contamination of liquid nonmedicated soap. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 21: 196–199

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Sartor C, Sambuc R, Bimar MC, Gulian C, De Micco P (1995) Prevalence surveys of nosocomial infections using a random method in Marseille hospitals. J. Hosp. Infect. 29: 209–216

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Sattar SA, Jacobsen H, Springthorpe VS, Cusack TM, Rubino JR (1993) Chemical disinfection to interrupt transfer of rhinovirus type 14 from environmental surfaces to hands. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 1579–1585

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Schmitz F-J, Verhoef J, Fluit AC (1999) Prevalence of resistance to MLS antibiotics in 20 European university hospitals participating in the European SENTRY surveillance programme. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 43: 783–792

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Schürmann W, Eggers HJ (1985) An experimental study on the epidemiology of enteroviruses: water and soap washing of poliovirus 1-contaminated hands, its effectiveness and kinetics. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 174: 221–236

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Scopetti F, Orefici G, Biondi F, Benini F (1983) Staphylococcus aureus resistant to methicillin and gentamicin as a cause of outbreak of epidemic enteritis in a hospital. Boll. 1st. Sieroter. Milan 62: 406–411

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Shahid NS, Greenough WB, Samadi AR, Huq MI, Rahman N (1996) Hand washing with soap reduces diarhoea and spread of bacterial pathogens in a Bangladesh village. J. Diarrhoeal Dis. Res. 14: 85–89

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Shamseldin el Shafie S, Smith W, Donnelly G (1995) An outbreak of gentamicin-resistant Klebsiella pneu-moniae in a neonatal ward. Cent. Eur. J. Public Health 3: 129–131

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Shoham MA (1979) Herpetic infection of the finger: a risk to the endoscopist. Gastrointest. Endose. 25: 26–27

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Slight PH, Weber JM, Campos JM, Plotkin SA (1987) Oxacillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococcal carriage rates in neonatal intensive care nurses and non-patient care hospital personnel. Am. J. Infect. Control 15: 29–32

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Smith JL, Maynard JE, Berquist KR, Webster HM, Sheller MJ (1976) From the Center for Disease Control: comparative risk of hepatitis B among physicians and dentists. J. Infect. Dis. 133: 705–706

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Solberg CO (2000) Spread of Staphylococcus aureus in hospitals: causes and prevention. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 32: 587–595

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Sonnex C, Strauss S, Gray JJ (1999) Detection of human papillomavirus DNA on the fingers of patients with genital warts. Sex. Transm. Inf. 75: 317–319

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Strausbaugh LJ, Sewell DL, Ward TT, Pfaller MA, Heitzman T, Tjoelker R (1994) High frequency of yeast carriage on hands of hospital personnel. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32: 2299–2300

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Suh HK, Jeon YH, Song JS, Hwang SJ, Cheong HJ (1998) A molecular epidemiologic study of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in patients undergoing middle ear surgery. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 255: 347–351

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Tenorio AR, Badri SM, Sahgal NB, Hota B, Matushek M, Hayden MK, Trenholme GM, Weinstein RA (2001) Effectiveness of gloves in the prevention of hand carriage of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus species by health care workers after patient care. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32: 826–829

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Thomas S, Agarwal M, Mehta G (2001) Intraoperative glove perforation — single versus double gloving in protection against skin contamination. Postgrad. Med. J. 77: 458–460

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. van Bueren J, Simpson RA, Jacobs P, Cookson BD (1994) Survival of human immunodeficiency virus in suspension and dried onto surfaces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32: 571–574

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. van Eiff C, Becker K, Machka K, Stammer H, Peters G (2001) Nasal carriage as a source of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Study group. N. Engl. J. Med. 344: 11–16

    Google Scholar 

  136. Vazquez JA, Dembry LM, Sanchez V, Vazquez MA, Sobel JD, Dmuchowski C, Zervos MJ (1998) Nosocomial Candida glabrata colonization: an epidemiologic study. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36: 421–426

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Vazquez JA, Sanchez V, Dmuchowski C, Dembry LM, Sobel JD, Zervos MJ (1993) Nosocomial acquisition of Candida albicans: an epidemiologic study. J. Infect. Dis. 168: 195–201

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Verrall R (1983) Serratia marcescens. Infect. Control 4: 469–471

    Google Scholar 

  139. Villari P, Crispino M, Slavadori A, Scarcella A (2001) Molecular epidemiology of an outbreak of Serratia marcescens in a neonatal intensive care unit. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 22: 630–634

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Voss A, Milatovic D, Wallrauch-Schwarz C, Rosdahl VT, Braveny I (1994) Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Europe. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 13: 50–55

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Wagenvoort JH, Sluijsman W, Penders RJ (2000) Better environmental survival of outbreak vs. sporadic MRSA isolates. J. Hosp. Infect. 45: 231–234

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Wagner MB, da Silva NB, Vinciprova AR, Becker AB, Burtet LM, Hall AJ (1997) Hospital-acquired infections among surgical patients in a Brazilian hospital. J. Hosp. Infect. 35: 277–285

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Wang J-T, Chang S-C, Ko W-J, Chang Y-Y, Chen M-L, Pan H-J, Luh K-T (2001) A hospital-acquired outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection initiated by a surgeon carrier. J. Hosp. Infect. 47: 104–109

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Wendt C, Dietze B, Dietz E, Rüden H (1997) Survival oí Acinetobacter baumannii on dry surfaces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35: 1394–1397

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Wendt C, Wiesenthal B, Dietz E, Rüden H (1998) Survival of vancomycin-resistant and vancomycinsusceptible enterococci on dry surfaces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36: 3734–3736

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Wenzel RP, Perl TM (1995) The significance of nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus and the incidence of postoperative wound infection. J. Hosp. Infect. 31: 13–24

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Widmer AF, Wenzel RP, Trilla A, Bale MJ, Jones RN, Doebbeling BN (1993) Outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in a surgical intensive care unit: probable transmission via hands of a health care worker. Clin. Infect. Dis. 16: 372–376

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Williams JV, Vowels B, Honig P, Leyden JJ (1999) Staphylococcus aureus isolation from the lesions, the hands, and anterior nares of patients with atopic dermatitis. J. Emerg. Med. 17: 207–211

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Williams JV, Vowels BR, Honig PJ, Leyden JJ (1998) S. aureus isolation from the lesions, the hands, and the anterior nares of patients with atopic dermatitis. Pediatr. Dermatol. 15: 194–198

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Williams WW, Mariano J, Spurrier M, Donnell HD, Breckenridge RL, Anderson RL, Wachsmuth IK, Thornsberry C, Graham DR, Thibeault DW, Allen JR (1984) Nosocomial meningitis due to Citrobacter diversus in neonates: new aspects of the epidemiology. J. Infect. Dis. 150: 229–235

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Wingard E, Shlaes JH, Mortimer EA, Shlaes DM (1993) Colonization and cross-colonization of nursing home patients with trimethoprim-resistant gram-negative bacilli. Clin. Infect. Dis. 16: 75–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Yoshikawa T, Ihira M, Suzuki K, Suga S, Tomitaka A, Ueda H, Asano Y (2001) Rapid contamination of the environments with varicalla-zoster virus DNA from a patient with herpes zoster. J. Med. Virol. 63: 64–66

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Yu WL, Cheng HS, Lin HC, Peng CT, Tsai CH (2000) Outbreak investigation of nosocomial Enterobacter cloacae bacteraemia in a neonatal intensive care unit. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 32: 293–298

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Zyzik E, Gerlich WH, Uy A, Kochel H, Thomssen R (1986) Assay of hepatitis B virus genome titers in sera of infected subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 5: 330–335

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. G. Kampf
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Bode Chemie GmbH & Co., Scientific Affairs, Melanchthonstr. 27, 22525, Hamburg, Deutschland

    Günter Kampf

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2003 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kampf, G. (2003). Mikrobielle Besiedlung der Hände und ihre epidemiologische Bedeutung. In: Kampf, G. (eds) Hände-Hygiene im Gesundheitswesen. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55718-7_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55718-7_2

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-62908-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-55718-7

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation