Abstract
In the 91 years since its establishment, the Communist Party of China (CPC) has made innovative efforts as it developed the system of its central leadership—its core institution. The historical experience of the party boils down to one point: it constantly needs to adhere to and improve the collective leadership of the Central Committee of the CPC. As the largest governing party in the most populated country in the world, the CPC has to continue making efforts to improve its collective presidency with Chinese characteristics. Those Chinese characteristics are the basic attributes of this institution, and collective leadership is its fundamental feature.
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Notes
- 1.
Deng Xiaoping pointed out that the CPC was key to the proper functioning of China and that a competent Standing Committee of the Political Bureau was key to the proper functioning of the CPC. Deng Xiaoping (1994).
- 2.
“Adhere to and perfect the leadership of the CPC. A systematic leadership system is a fundamental guarantee for effective governing of the country. Keep to the core leadership of the CPC, which assumes overall responsibility and coordinates all sectors. Maintain the leadership of the CPC, make the people responsible for their own affairs, and govern the country by law. Combine the above three aspects organically. Improve and perfect the leadership and governing ways of the CPC. Improve the leading and governing capacities of the CPC. The CPC should support the National People’s Congress, the government, the CPPCC, the judicial system, and mass organizations in carrying out work independently and in coordination with each other in accordance with laws and regulations. Ensure the core leading role of the CPC committee among all bodies. Guarantee that the policies, guidelines, and resolutions of CPC committees are implemented.” The CPC Central Committee’s Decision on Major Problems in Strengthening and Improving CPC Construction (passed at the Fourth Plenary Session of the Seventeenth National Congress on September 18, 2009.)
- 3.
The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that there are four levels of government in China.
- 4.
The Council of the European Union, or the council of ministers from EU member countries, is the decision-making institution of the EU. It is a conference of heads of EU states and the council of ministers. The council is chaired in rotation by EU member countries, whose term is half a year. The Conference of Heads of EU States is the highest decision-making institution in the EU. It is responsible for adopting major guidelines and policies and it is made up of heads of state or national leaders. This is where national ministers from each EU country meet to adopt laws and coordinate policies. During each term of the chairing country, a conference is convened and, when necessary, a special conference is also held. The Council of Ministers is responsible for daily decision making and has legislative power. It consists of ministers for foreign affairs or special ministers.
- 5.
As the highest decision-making institution of the EU, the European Council brings together the heads of state or government of every EU country as well as the president of the Commission of European Union. The presidency is rotated among all member countries every half a year.
- 6.
The Commission of the EU is the actuator of the EU, drafting proposals for new European laws. It manages the day-to-day business of implementing EU treaties, laws, and policies made by the European Council. It proposes new laws and enforces EU laws. It represents the EU internationally, e.g., for trade negotiations, and speaks on behalf of EU countries in international bodies. Group leadership and a majority rule system are adopted. The commission has one president (José Manuel Durão Barroso), five vice presidents, and 27 commissioners.
- 7.
The European Parliament is the law-making, supervising, and consultative institution of the EU.
- 8.
The European Court of Justice is the arbitrating institution of the EU. It settles legal disputes among EU governments and EU institutions in implementing EU treaties and policies. It includes 15 judges and nine advocates-general, who are appointed by the government of EU member countries.
- 9.
The White House Office is one of the working organizations of the president of the United States that helps the president deal with daily work, and it also summarizes information and drafts proposals for decision making. There are over 20 senior officials in the office; they are usually made up of the president’s campaign staff and the president’s friends and followers as well as a few scholars or experts who are outside the campaign staff. This office serves the president, and its officials are appointed by the president without the approval of the senate; it is therefore not supervised or controlled by Congress.
- 10.
There are over 190 countries in the world, and a major country referred to in the text signifies a country with a population of over 100 million or one of the G20 countries.
- 11.
In the 1990s, President Clinton changed the policy orientations of the Democratic Party more toward the political middle in an effort to attract voters who were inclined toward the Republican Party. Since Obama came into power, the Democratic Party has shifted toward left-leaning liberals and progressivism.
- 12.
In the presidential election of 2004, Bush won 41 % support among the poorest 20 % of the population, 55 % support from the wealthiest 20 % of the population, and 53 % support from the middle class. In the House election of 2006, 49 % of the electorates whose annual incomes exceeded US$50,000 voted for the Republican Party, while voters whose annual income was lower than $50,000 accounted for less than 38 %.
- 13.
The Republicans in the United States tend toward conservatism on social issues and libertarianism on economic issues, and the party has a close relationship with Wall Street (big enterprises) and commercial districts (small regional enterprises); however, the party wins little support from trade unions. The Republicans support low taxation and advocate limiting government size and commercial development, but they stand for government intervention in some social issues, such as abortion.
- 14.
OECD Factbook 2011–2012: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics Home/Statistics/ OECD Factbook/2012/Life expectancy.
- 15.
In accordance with Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, the premier is in charge of the State Council, i.e., the premier assumes full responsibility for the State Council. Vice premiers and state councilors assist the premier in his work. The Work Codes of the State Council, revised in 2005 and 2008, made important amendments: the eighth article stipulates that the premier convenes and chairs plenary meetings and executive meetings of the State Council. Major issues of the State Council are to be discussed in the plenary meetings and executive meetings of the State Council. The 22nd article stipulates that before making major decisions, symposia shall be held to hear the opinions and suggestions of other parties, mass organizations, experts, scholars, and so on. The Work Code of the State Council, March 21, 2008.
- 16.
The Iraq War cost $845 billion and caused $3 trillion damage to the US economy: Daniel Trotta (2008-03-02). “Iraq War Hits U.S. Economy: Nobel Winner.” Reuters.com. Retrieved 2010-10-23). The KIA totaled 139, and the non-KIA totaled 4280.
- 17.
According to Donald Rumsfeld, defense secretary of the United States, the objectives of the Iraq War were as follows: (1) topple the regime of Saddam Hussein and help the Iraqi people build a self-governing government; (2) search for and destroy weapons of mass destruction and terrorists hidden in Iraq; (3) end sanctions and provide humanistic aid; (4) protect the oil and other national resources. The actual results were innumerable fatalities of the Iraqi people, with 100,000 to 1 million civilians killed (Opinion Research Business Survey, August 2007), and 4.8 million refugees, of whom the United States accommodated only 800. In all 60 %–70 % of Iraqi children suffered from mental illnesses, and 68 % of inhabitants did not have clean water; half of Iraq’s doctors fled the country. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War#Casualty_estimates
- 18.
On February 9, 2007, the American Ministry of Defense submitted an internal investigation report to Congress about the intelligence before the Iraq War. The report indicated that the apparent connection between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda was doubtful in terms of quality and credibility. Douglas Feith, Under Secretary of Defense, took inappropriate actions after drawing this incorrect conclusion. However, according to the report, Feith did not break the law.
- 19.
The Iraq War lasted 7 years and 5 months from March 20, 2003, when the United States invaded Iraq, to August 2010, when combat troops were withdrawn. All combat missions were ended, and 50,000–350,000 soldiers were left to support military actions of the Iraqi government and its security forces. All remaining troops were withdrawn before the end of 2011.
- 20.
Neither party has a fixed political program during the presidential election. The personal wishes, propositions, and preferences of the presidential candidates and the advice and suggestions from several private consultants cannot possibly be termed the political wisdom of the whole party. They cannot possibly reflect and represent the fundamental long-term interests of the people. This is in sharp contrast with the CPC.
- 21.
The 2012 Statistical Abstract. http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/labor_force_employment_earnings/employed_persons.html
- 22.
Obama said after the voting results were announced, “Tonight’s voting result will not be the end of this struggle….there are still so many Americans out of jobs, so many families struggling for a living, we cannot accept no for an answer to the problems. The American people will not accept no for an answer.” Geithner, Treasury Secretary, when interviewed by Bloomberg Television, was asked whether the Republicans stymieing the Employment Act would increase the risks of putting the American economy in recession again, answered, “Definitely yes. If Congress do not take any action, that’s because the Republicans have decided not to take any measures to save the economy. By then, the economy will be weaker….people will lose their jobs.” AFP Washington Nov. 12, 2011.
- 23.
A survey was conducted by the Conference Board for the Business Council among 70 CEOs of international companies. When asked what organizations are the most competent and reliable, the CEOs placed international companies in the top position. About 90 % of the respondents held that international companies are the most efficient in dealing with the challenges brought about by economic crises and financial turbulence. In the next position were the central banks. About 80 % of the respondents held that central banks are very efficient. In the third position was the leadership of the CPC: 64 % of the respondents held that the leadership of the CPC has dealt with political and economic challenges efficiently in recent years. This is much higher than the survey result for the U.S. president, who received only 33 % and that for the U.S. Congress, which received only 5 %. Financial Times, June 1, 2012.
- 24.
President Obama of the United State published State of the Union Address on January 24, drafted by the White House Office of News Secretary. Reference Material, January 30, 2012, Issue No. 16.
- 25.
CIA, The World Factbook, CIA website.
- 26.
The banking expert Kevin wrote that the traditional liberal democratic view holds that only democratic elections form the basis of true legality. I call this election fundamentalism. In fact providing a choice, especially a false choice, does little to help ensure good results. The extreme result of election fundamentalism is a legally elected government that does nothing. Kevin points out that the form democratic elections on which the governing model of the West is based guarantee ideal process, but do not necessarily lead to ideal results. Kevin maintained that if Bush was not doing a good job, he would be allowed to accomplish nothing in four years. Then, Obama is elected. If Obama also does not do a good job, he still has four years before another president is voted in. If the disappointing economic status cannot be changed by the leaders, it is not their fault but the fault of the electorate that put them in office, and they only have themselves to blame. Kevin (2011).
- 27.
Mao Zedong pointed out in “On the Ten Major Relationships” that China used to be a colony and semi-colony, subject to the bullying of imperialist countries. With underdeveloped agriculture and industry and backward science and technology, China could not hold its head high despite its vast territory, huge population, and long history as well as such cultural achievements as the Dream of the Red Chamber. What is even more unfortunate is that some people who have been so used to being slaves feel inferior to foreigners in all respects, just like Jia Gui in Famen Temple, who declined invitations to sit down, replying that he was used to standing. The morale of the Chinese people and national confidence should be boosted, along with the spirit advocated in the War to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea in defying the imperialists of the U.S. Mao Zedong (1999).
- 28.
Mao Zedong pointed out on June 17, 1958, “We mainly rely on our own strength and meanwhile try to gain foreign assistance, shake off superstition in building industry and agriculture and carry out technological and cultural revolutions. We must shake off thoughts of slavery and dogmatism and study carefully positive and negative foreign experiences: this is our route to development.” Mao Zedong, Comments made on June 17, 1958, after reading the Second Five-Year Plan reports made by Li Fuchun, vice premier and director of State Planning Commission, which was to be printed and handed out at the enlarged meeting of the military commission of the Central Committee of the CPC.
- 29.
During the period of 1946–2002, 28 American presidential elections were held, among which one-party control accounted for 43 %, with the Democratic Party having the presidency and control of Congress 10 times, and the Republican Party twice; divided party control took place 16 times, accounting for 57 %, with the Republicans having the presidency twice while the Democratic Party controlled Congress. Almond et~al. (2010).
- 30.
The First Plenary Session of the Political Bureau discussed and adopted the Work Codes of the Thirteenth Political Bureau (trial), Work Codes of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CPC (trial), and Work Codes of the Thirteenth Secretariat. The Second Plenary Session of the Sixteenth National Congress of the CPC promulgated in February 2003 Work Codes of the Thirteenth Political Bureau and Work Codes of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CPC.
- 31.
The Fourth Plenary Session of the Seventeenth Central Committee Conference pointed out that the committee should play a decision-making role in major problems, and the rules and regulations of discussions and decision-making procedures of the Standing Committee should be refined. Local committees of the CPC should discuss and decide on major issues and vote on the appointment of important cadres. The CPC Central Committee’s Decisions on Important Problems in Strengthening and Improving the Construction of CPC under New Conditions was passed at the Fourth Plenary Session of the Seventeenth Central Committee Conference on September 18, 2009.
- 32.
See Jiang Zemin (2006d, pp. 519–520).
- 33.
The Fourth Plenary Session of the Seventeenth Central Committee Conference pointed out: the leading group should conduct serious criticism and self-criticism, people should be able to speak freely; those who do so shall not be blamed and those listening should heed any warnings, correct any mistakes that have been made and avoid making others. CPC Central Committee’s Decisions on Important Problems in Strengthening and Improving the Construction of the CPC under New Conditions, passed at the Fourth plenary Session of the Seventeenth Central Committee Conference on September 18, 2009.
- 34.
It was pointed out at the Fourth Plenary Session of the Seventeenth National Congress of the CPC that it was necessary to further refine the procedures for correcting mistakes and ascertaining responsibility. The CPC Central Committee’s Decisions on Important Problems in Strengthening and Improving the Construction of CPC under New Conditions, passed at the Fourth Plenary Session of the Seventeenth Central Committee Conference on September 18, 2009.
- 35.
A successful case was the following: On December 22, 1999, the members of the Standing Committee of the Fifteenth Political Bureau spent five and a half days discussing learning, politics, and integrity. On January 20, 2001, Jiang Zemin, on behalf of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau, reported the work on learning, politics, and integrity. See Jiang Zemin (2006d, pp. 519–586).
- 36.
“Principles on the Political Life within the Party” was passed at the Fifth Plenary Session of the Eleventh National Congress in 1980. It stipulates that internal contentions within the CPC are forbidden, as well as bitter struggles and ruthless actions. These would amount to violations of CPC discipline and laws. There were to be no personal insults or persecution, no elicited or coerced confessions, and in no circumstances should innocent families or friends become involved. “Principles on the Political Life within the Party” was passed at the Fifth Plenary Session of the Eleventh National Congress. February 29, 1980, Central Party Literature Study Room 1982.
- 37.
In discussing deficiencies and shortcomings in the work of the CPC’s central leadership, Jiang Zemin stated that he was secretary-general and should assume ultimate responsibility for problems (including serious issues such as corruption) regardless of the cause. Jiang Zemin (2006, p. 557).
- 38.
The Tenth Article of the Constitution of the CPC passed at the Twelfth National Congress of the CPC in 1982 stipulates that the CPC forbids any form of personality cult, and it ensures that all the activities of the CPC leaders are supervised by CPC members and the people, without harming the prestige of any leaders who represent the interests of the CPC and the people.
- 39.
Jiang Zemin demanded that no individuals in the central leadership should be highlighted in publicity since it would do no good to those individuals or to the cause of the CPC, and it would have a negative effect among the people. This principle needs to be repeated so that all CPC members follow it. Jiang Zemin (2006a).
- 40.
Hu Jintao (2003). On March 28, 2003, Hu commented on printing and distributing the “Opinion on Further Improving the News Reporting on Conferences and Activities of Leaders in the Central CPC Committee Office,” which covered news reports on the activities and diplomatic work of leaders (members of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau) as well as the editing and broadcasting of news and news reports on conferences and other activities of local leaders.
- 41.
“Principles on the Political Life within the Party,” passed at the Fifth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee conference of the CPC on February 29, 1980.
- 42.
Mao Zedong said that whether the ideological and political routes are correct is a determining element. “The correct route brings everything—people, guns, and power. The incorrect route could cost us everything, even if we have got everything. The route is the key issue.” Mao Zedong (1998).
- 43.
Deng Xiaoping pointed out that the two secretaries-general in the past were removed from office not because they were wrongly elected, but because they made mistakes with respect to basic problems, that is, in sticking to the four fundamental principles, of which the most crucial one is the leadership of the CPC and socialism. “Opposition to the four fundamental principles is capitalist liberalization. We shall stick to the four fundamental principles and oppose capitalist liberalization. I have emphasized this many times, but unfortunately they did not adhere to it. In the political turmoil, Zhao Ziyang revealed himself to be on the side of those who had caused it and those who actually tried to split the country. (Deng Xiaoping 1993d) Deng Xiaoping stated that political turmoil in that year had been inevitable, partly owing to internal problems. “Our two secretaries-general have made mistakes concerning capitalist liberalization, which would have led to turmoil and unrest and prevented us from getting things done and following our guidelines, policies, and the plans we had laid out. All our strategic objectives for the three stages would have been thrown out of the window. Deng Xiaoping (1993c).
- 44.
Literature needs to be supplemented.
- 45.
Jiang Zemin has stated that the political turmoil in 1989 reached such a poor state of affairs because two prominent but opposing voices emerged in the CPC central leadership, with the result that the party as a whole could not unify its thoughts and take forceful measures. Jiang Zemin (2006b).
- 46.
Guidelines on the Political Life within the Party, passed at the Fifth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee Conference on February 29, 1980.
- 47.
Hu Angang, “A Good Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CPC and the Design of Its Mechanisms: Taking the Sixteenth National Congress of the CPC as an Example, November 16, 2007; cited in book entitled The Second Transformation: Construction of the National Institutions (Updated Edition) (Hu Angang et~al. 2009).
- 48.
Deng Xiaoping pointed out, “I have never advocated exaggerating the role of a single individual, which is very dangerous and unsustainable. To base the stability of a country and a political party on the prestige of one or two individuals is unreliable and easily causes problems.” Deng Xiaoping (1993a).
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Hu, A. (2014). Political Advantages of the Collective Presidency. In: China’s Collective Presidency. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55279-3_8
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