Abstract
The innovation, formation, and development of the collective presidency with Chinese characteristics did not come about by accident: it is the historical product, function, and outcome of an era. It has certainly undergone change. The initial form of this system was the collective leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC); that system was formed during a harsh period of war, and it gradually evolved thereafter. Subsequently, the system became the decision-making and coordinating mechanism of the ruling party tasked with governing a modern country with the largest population in the world. In over 60 years since the founding of the new China, the collective presidency with Chinese characteristics has developed along a long course that has involved considerable making and fixing of mistakes. From efficient collaboration to failure, from reconstruction and recovery to enhancement and completion, this system has finally matured into a system of political leadership and political decision making that is the most appropriate for the current situation in China and in the face of international competition.
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Notes
- 1.
Compiled by Party Literature Research Centre (2011, p. 78).
- 2.
Compiled by Party Literature Research Centre (2011, p. 437).
- 3.
Compiled by Party Literature Research Centre (2011, p. 601).
- 4.
Mao Zedong pointed out that the leadership of the party committee was collective leadership and not dependent on the arbitrary decisions of the first secretary. He said that only democratic centralism should be implemented within the party committee and relations between the first secretary and other secretaries and members depended on majority decisions. This was normal among the members of the Standing Committee of the Central Committee or Political Bureau. “No matter what I said was right or wrong, if others disagree, I would obey their opinions because they were the majority.” Mao Zedong (1999).
- 5.
On September 26, 1959, the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee appointed Mao Zedong chairman of the Military Committee of the CPC Central Committee; Lin Biao, He Long, and Nie Rongzhen as vice chairmen and Lin Biao as the person in charge of daily work of the Military Committee.
- 6.
A detailed analysis can be found in Hu Angang (2008).
- 7.
See Hu Angang (2010, p. 297).
- 8.
On April 12, 1967, at the Enlarged Meeting of the Military Committee of the Central Committee of the CPC, Jiang Qing said that the whole Central Cultural Revolution Team was a team of the Standing Committee and also the “guard” and “brains.” The five major members of the Central Cultural Revolution Team—Chen Boda, Kang Sheng, Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, and Yao Wenyuan—constantly attended the Briefing Meetings of the Central Committee for the Cultural Revolution. See Hu Angang (2010).
- 9.
The sixth paragraph of the General Program of the Constitution of the CPC approved at the Ninth National Party Congress specified, “Holding the great flag of Mao Zedong thought, Lin Biao implements and guards the proletarian revolution of Mao Zedong most loyally and most affirmatively. Lin Biao is the close comrade in arms and the successor of Mao Zedong.” See China Revolution Museum (1979).
- 10.
Wu Faxian introduced this after the Ninth National Party Congress; the Meeting of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CPC replaced the Briefing Meeting of the Cultural Revolution chaired by Zhou Enlai. Generally, Mao Zedong and Lin Biao were absent from these meetings. All topics and documents brought by the Political Bureau or topics introduced by Mao Zedong for discussion would be discussed at the meeting of the Political Bureau first, signed by Zhou Enlai, and then submitted to Mao Zedong and Lin Biao before implementation upon the approval of Mao and Lin. Wu Faxian (2006, p. 748).
- 11.
Compiled by Pang Xianzhi and Jin Chongji (2003, p. 1739).
- 12.
“Reports of Deng Xiaoping to Mao Zedong”, November 15, 1975, quoted from Biography of Mao Zedong (1949–1976) compiled by Pang Xianzhi and Jin Chongji (2003, p. 1739).
- 13.
Wang Hongwen had returned to Beijing from Shanghai. On November 15, Deng Xiaoping had to write a report to Mao Zedong to officially note that the daily activities of the Central Committee should be directed by Wang Hongwen. Therefore, Mao Zedong gave instructions by letter to Deng Xiaoping that night: “(Daily works of the central committee) should be led by Deng Xiaoping temporarily. This matter is to be determined later”. Mao Zedong (1998b).
- 14.
Refers to Dong Biwu (died April 1975), Kang Sheng (died December 1975), and Zhou Enlai (died January 1976).
- 15.
The eight members of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CPC attending the meeting: Hua Guofeng et~al. (1998).
- 16.
Deng Xiaoping pointed out that over-centralization of power can appear under the guise of enhancing unified leadership of the party, which leads to inappropriate and arbitrary centralization of all power in the party committee; in this way, the power of the party committee becomes centred on a small number of officials, especially the first secretary, and all matters are determined by this secretary. In this way, unified leadership of the party sometimes can result in overly individualistic leadership. This issue exists in organizations at all levels around the country. Too much power is centralized in certain individuals or a small number of people; by contrast, the majority—those who carry out the work—do not take part in the decision making. This leads to excessive bureaucracy, mistakes, damage to the democratic life of party committees and governments at all levels, damage to the collective leadership, damage to democratic centralization, and damage to the division of work. This phenomenon calls to mind feudalist absolutism in Chinese history and the tradition of dictatorial party leadership in some countries during international communism. Deng Xiaoping (1994).
- 17.
Deng Xiaoping pointed out that to meet the demands of construction along modern socialist lines and the requirements of democratic political life in the party and the state, it was necessary to promote what was beneficial and abolish what was harmful. He noted that there were many areas that required reform with respect to the leadership and other systems of the party and the state. He declared that it was important to reflect on the lessons of history, conduct in-depth investigations and research, centralize opinions as appropriate, and positively push for reform in a step-by-step process from central to local levels. Deng Xiaoping (1994).
- 18.
At the Central Work Meeting (36 days) and Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the CPC (4 days), there were over 500 speeches and briefing meetings, which amounted to almost 1.5 million written characters. Ye Yonglie (2008). This meeting was a major event in the history of the CPC in terms of the open expression of thoughts and dialogue, and real democracy.
- 19.
Chen Yun: Recording of Speech at the Closing Ceremony of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh CPC Central Committee (December 22, 1978). See the work compiled by Jin Chongzhi and Chen Qun (2005).
- 20.
Ye Jianying: Speech on the First Meeting of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the CPC (February 24, 1980), compiled by the Party Literature Research Centre (1982a).
- 21.
“Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPC on Several Historic Issues in New China” (unanimously approved by the Sixth Plenary Session at the Eleventh Central Committee of the CPC on June 27, 1981), Compiled by the Party Literature Research Centre (1982b).
- 22.
Hu Qiaomu answered questions made by a reporter of the Xinhua News Agency about modifying the Constitution of the CPC. See report of the Xinhua News Agency from Beijing on January 13, 1982.
- 23.
In July 1990, Deng Xiaoping said to Pierre Trudeau, the former Canadian Prime Minister on a visit to China, that he had considered the problem about succession 10 years earlier but that he had been unable to finalize the succession issue until the previous year (1989). See: Chronicles of Deng Xiaoping (1975–1997) (part II) compiled by the Party Literature Research Centre (2004).
- 24.
Deng Xiaoping pointed out that the reason the two former secretaries-general were removed is not that they were incompetent when they were appointed. Their appointment was correct. However, they subsequently made mistakes with regard to insisting on the four basic principles. The most basic principle involves leadership of the party and socialism. Opposition to those four principles amounts to capitalistic liberalization. Deng said that he had often stressed those four basic principles and combated capitalistic liberation, but he had failed in the attempt. Zhao Ziyang had been exposed to the turbulence related to this issue of capitalistic liberalization. He had in fact been on the side of such liberalization. Deng Xiaoping (1993).
- 25.
Washington March 23 2012 (China News Service). A legal challenge to U.S. president Barack Obama’s health-care reform policy by 13 states, where the Republicans are in the majority, began. The states made the accusation that the health-care reform legislation went against the Constitution and violated the rights of the states. This occurred just seven minutes after the second step in the health-care reform legislation was taken after the House had narrowly voted (219 vs. 212) for the Budget Coordination Act and Barack Obama had officially signed the law in the White House. The Republican-controlled Senate voted to repeal the 2010 Healthcare Law shortly after it was passed in the House and the Senate. President Obama began his health-care reform in 2008 when he was elected president of the United States. Former president Bill Clinton also attempted to introduce health-care reform in 1992.
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Hu, A. (2014). The Historical Development of the Collective Presidency in China. In: China’s Collective Presidency. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55279-3_2
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