Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Prevention of Colorectal Cancer

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Fundamentals of Cancer Prevention

Abstract

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a malignant epithelial neoplasm (adenocarcinoma) developing in the glandular tissue of the colon or rectum. The great majority of CRCs develop from adenomatous colorectal polyps in a process called the adenoma-carcinoma sequence (Muto et al., Cancer 36(6):2251–2270, 1975). Colorectal polyps are a histopathologic group of benign lesions that include hyperplastic and adenomatous polyps that project above the surrounding mucosa as well as the less common, non-polypoid polyps. The adenomatous polyps (adenomas) are benign, neoplastic precursors that arise in the colorectal glandular epithelium. In the United States (USA), colorectal adenoma (CRA) prevalence is approximately 25 % by age 50 and rises to around 50 % by age 70. The histological hallmarks of a CRA are altered glandular architecture and dysplasia of the epithelium. A benign CRA progresses to invasive CRC when the dysplastic cells gain the capacity to invade through the muscularis mucosa. The development of invasive cancer from the earliest CRA may take from years to decades. While most CRCs develop from CRAs, the slow rate of progress results in less than 10 % ever progressing to CRC. In this chapter, we review the molecular characteristics of the disease and provide an update on the epidemiology including reviewing evidence for established and suspected risk factors for CRC. Given the dramatic impact that screening and early detection have had on reducing the incidence and mortality suspected of CRC and death from CRC, we have included a detailed review of the different screening recommendations and their efficacy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abraham C, Cho JH (2009) Inflammatory bowel disease. N Engl J Med 361(21):2066–2078

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahlquist DA, Wieand HS et al (1993) Accuracy of fecal occult blood screening for colorectal neoplasia. JAMA 269:1262–1267

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahlquist DA, Skoletsky JE et al (2000) Colorectal cancer screening by detection of altered human DNA in stool: feasibility of a multitarget assay panel. Gastroenterology 119:1219–1227

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahlquist DA, Sargent DJ et al (2008) Stool DNA and occult blood testing for screen detection of colorectal neoplasia. Ann Intern Med 149(7):441–450, W81

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahlquist DA, Zou H et al (2012) Next-generation stool DNA test accurately detects colorectal cancer and large adenomas. Gastroenterology 142(2):248–256; quiz e25–e26

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alberts DS, Martínez ME et al (2000) Lack of effect of a high-fiber cereal supplement on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 342:1156–1162

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alberts DS, Martinez ME et al (2005) Phase III trial of ursodeoxycholic acid to prevent colorectal adenoma recurrence. J Natl Cancer Inst 97(11):846–853

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allison JE (2010) FIT: a valuable but underutilized screening test for colorectal cancer-it’s time for a change. Am J Gastroenterol 105(9):2026–2028

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allison JE, Sakoda LC et al (2007) Screening for colorectal neoplasms with new fecal occult blood tests: update on performance characteristics. J Natl Cancer Inst 99(19):1462–1470

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allison JE, Fraser CG et al (2012) Comparing fecal immunochemical tests: improved standardization is needed. Gastroenterology 142(3):422–424

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous (2007) Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. World Cancer Research Fund, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Arber N, Eagle CJ et al (2006) Celecoxib for the prevention of colorectal adenomatous polyps. N Engl J Med 355(9):885–895

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Atkin WS, Edwards R et al (2010) Once-only flexible sigmoidoscopy screening in prevention of colorectal cancer: a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 375(9726):1624–1633

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aune D, Chan DS et al (2011) Dietary fibre, whole grains, and risk of colorectal cancer: systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ 343:d6617

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Austin GL, Fennimore B et al (2012) Can colonoscopy remain cost-effective for colorectal cancer screening? The impact of practice patterns and the will Rogers phenomenon on costs. Am J Gastroenterol 108(3):296–301

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakhoum SF, Compton DA (2012) Chromosomal instability and cancer: a complex relationship with therapeutic potential. J Clin Invest 122(4):1138–1143

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron JA, Beach M et al (1999) Calcium supplements for the prevention of colorectal adenomas. Calcium Polyp Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 340(2):101–107

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron JA, Cole BF et al (2003) A randomized trial of aspirin to prevent colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 348(10):891–899

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron JA, Sandler RS et al (2006) A randomized trial of rofecoxib for the chemoprevention of colorectal adenomas. Gastroenterology 131(6):1674–1682

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter NN, Goldwasser MA et al (2009) Association of colonoscopy and death from colorectal cancer. Ann Intern Med 150(1):1–8

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben Q, An W et al (2012) Body mass index increases risk for colorectal adenomas based on meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 142(4):762–772

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benamouzig R, Deyra J et al (2003) Daily soluble aspirin and prevention of colorectal adenoma recurrence: one-year results of the APACC trial1. Gastroenterology 125(2):328–336

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bertagnolli MM, Eagle CJ et al (2006) Celecoxib for the prevention of sporadic colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 355(9):873–884

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beuers U (2006) Drug insight: mechanisms and sites of action of ursodeoxycholic acid in cholestasis. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol 3(6):318–328

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Botteri E, Iodice S et al (2008) Smoking and colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. JAMA 300(23):2765–2778

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bowles CJ, Leicester R et al (2004) A prospective study of colonoscopy practice in the UK today: are we adequately prepared for national colorectal cancer screening tomorrow? Gut 53(2):277–283

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brawley O, Byers T et al (2011) New American Cancer Society process for creating trustworthy cancer screening guidelines. JAMA 306(22):2495–2499

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brenner DJ, Georgsson MA (2005) Mass screening with CT colonography: should the radiation exposure be of concern? Gastroenterology 129(1):328–337

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brenner DJ, Doll R et al (2003) Cancer risks attributable to low doses of ionizing radiation: assessing what we really know. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100(24):13761–13766

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brenner H, Hoffmeister M et al (2009) Expected reduction of colorectal cancer incidence within 8 years after introduction of the German screening colonoscopy programme: estimates based on 1,875,708 screening colonoscopies. Eur J Cancer 45(11):2027–2033

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brenner H, Hoffmeister M et al (2010) Protection from right- and left-sided colorectal neoplasms after colonoscopy: population-based study. J Natl Cancer Inst 102:89–95

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bresalier RS, Sandler RS et al (2005) Cardiovascular events associated with rofecoxib in a colorectal adenoma chemoprevention trial. N Engl J Med 352(11):1092–1102

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burn J, Gerdes AM et al (2011) Long-term effect of aspirin on cancer risk in carriers of hereditary colorectal cancer: an analysis from the CAPP2 randomised controlled trial. Lancet 378(9809):2081–2087

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butterworth AS, Higgins JP et al (2006) Relative and absolute risk of colorectal cancer for individuals with a family history: a meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer 42(2):216–227

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Center MM, Jemal A et al (2009a) Worldwide variations in colorectal cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 59(6):366–378

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Center MM, Jemal A et al (2009b) International trends in colorectal cancer incidence rates. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18(6):1688–1694

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chan AT, Giovannucci EL (2010) Primary prevention of colorectal cancer. Gastroenterology 138(6):2029–2043.e10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chan AT, Giovannucci EL et al (2004) A prospective study of aspirin use and the risk for colorectal adenoma. Ann Intern Med 140(3):157–166

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chan DS, Lau R et al (2011) Red and processed meat and colorectal cancer incidence: meta-analysis of prospective studies. PLoS One 6(6):e20456

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chan AT, Arber N et al (2012) Aspirin in the chemoprevention of colorectal neoplasia: an overview. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 5(2):164–178

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cho E, Smith-Warner SA et al (2004a) Alcohol intake and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 8 cohort studies. Ann Intern Med 140(8):603–613

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cho E, Smith-Warner SA et al (2004b) Dairy foods, calcium, and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 10 cohort studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 96(13):1015–1022

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark L, Combs GF Jr, Turnbull BW, Slate EH, Chalker DK, Chow J, Davis LS, Glover RA, Graham GF, Gross EG, Krongrad A, Lesher JL Jr, Park HK, Sanders BB Jr, Smith CL, Taylor JR (1996) Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patient with carcinomas of the skin. JAMA 276:1957–1963

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Colditz GA, Wei EK (2012) Preventability of cancer: the relative contributions of biologic and social and physical environmental determinants of cancer mortality. Annu Rev Public Health 33:137–156

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colditz GA, Wolin KY et al (2012) Applying what we know to accelerate cancer prevention. Sci Transl Med 4(127):127rv4

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole BF, Baron JA et al (2007) Folic acid for the prevention of colorectal adenomas: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 297(21):2351–2359

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cole BF, Logan RF et al (2009) Aspirin for the chemoprevention of colorectal adenomas: meta-analysis of the randomized trials. J Natl Cancer Inst 101(4):256–266

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper GS, Kou TD et al (2013) Complications following colonoscopy with anesthesia assistance: a population-based analysis. JAMA Intern Med 173:551–556

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corley DA, Jensen CD et al (2011) Can we improve adenoma detection rates? A systematic review of intervention studies. Gastrointest Endosc 74(3):656–665

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cotton PB, Durkalski VL et al (2004) Computed tomographic colonography (virtual colonoscopy): a multicenter comparison with standard colonoscopy for detection of colorectal neoplasia. JAMA 291(14):1713–1719

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cross AJ, Ferrucci LM et al (2010) A large prospective study of meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: an investigation of potential mechanisms underlying this association. Cancer Res 70(6):2406–2414

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cruz-Correa M, Hylind LM et al (2002) Long-term treatment with sulindac in familial adenomatous polyposis: a prospective cohort study. Gastroenterology 122(3):641–645

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cryer B (2002) Gastrointestinal safety of low-dose aspirin. Am J Manag Care 8(22 Suppl):S701–S708

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cryer B, Kimmey MB (1998) Gastrointestinal side effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Am J Med 105(1B):20S–30S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Danese S, Fiocchi C (2011) Ulcerative colitis. N Engl J Med 365(18):1713–1725

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Wijkerslooth TR, Stoop EM et al (2012) Immunochemical fecal occult blood testing is equally sensitive for proximal and distal advanced neoplasia. Am J Gastroenterol 107(10):1570–1578

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Degirolamo C, Modica S et al (2011) Bile acids and colon cancer: solving the puzzle with nuclear receptors. Trends Mol Med 17(10):564–572

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Demierre MF, Higgins PD et al (2005) Statins and cancer prevention. Nat Rev Cancer 5(12):930–942

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Derry S, Loke YK (2000) Risk of gastrointestinal haemorrhage with long term use of aspirin: meta-analysis. BMJ 321(7270):1183–1187

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doubeni CA, Weinmann S et al (2013) Screening colonoscopy and risk for incident late-stage colorectal cancer diagnosis in average-risk adults: a nested case-control study. Ann Intern Med 158(5 Pt 1):312–320

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dube C, Rostom A et al (2007) The use of aspirin for primary prevention of colorectal cancer: a systematic review prepared for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 146(5):365–375

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duffield-Lillico AJ, Reid ME, Turnbull BW, Combs GF Jr, Slate EH, Fischbach LA, Marshall JR, Clark LC (2002) Baseline characteristics and the effect of selenium supplementation on cancer incidence in a randomized clinical trial: a summary report of the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11:630–639

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards BK, Ward E et al (2010) Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975–2006, featuring colorectal cancer trends and impact of interventions (risk factors, screening, and treatment) to reduce future rates. Cancer 116(3):544–573

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elmunzer BJ, Hayward RA et al (2012) Effect of flexible sigmoidoscopy-based screening on incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS Med 9(12):e1001352

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emami Riedmaier A, Fisel P et al (2013) Metformin and cancer: from the old medicine cabinet to pharmacological pitfalls and prospects. Trends Pharmacol Sci 34(2):126–135

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farraye FA, Odze RD et al (2010) AGA technical review on the diagnosis and management of colorectal neoplasia in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 138(2):746–774, 774 e1–e4; quiz e12–e13

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feagins LA, Souza RF et al (2009) Carcinogenesis in IBD: potential targets for the prevention of colorectal cancer. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 6(5):297–305

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fearon ER (2011) Molecular genetics of colorectal cancer. Annu Rev Pathol 6:479–507

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier AL, Colditz GA et al (2000) Cost-effectiveness of screening for colorectal cancer in the general population. JAMA 284:1954–1961

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman AC, Downing D et al (2010) Feasibility of remote CT colonography at two rural Native American medical centers. AJR Am J Roentgenol 195(5):1110–1117

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs CS, Willett WC et al (2002) The influence of folate and multivitamin use on the familial risk of colon cancer in women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11:227–234

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gandini S, Boniol M et al (2011) Meta-analysis of observational studies of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and colorectal, breast and prostate cancer and colorectal adenoma. Int J Cancer 128(6):1414–1424

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gatto NM, Frucht H et al (2003) Risk of perforation after colonoscopy and sigmoidoscopy: a population-based study. J Natl Cancer Inst 95(3):230–236

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giovannucci E (2004) Alcohol, one-carbon metabolism, and colorectal cancer: recent insights from molecular studies. J Nutr 134(9):2475S–2481S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giovannucci EL, Stampfer MJ et al (1998) Multivitamin use, folate, and colon cancer in women in nurses’ health study. Ann Intern Med 129:517–524

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gong J, Hutter C et al (2012) A pooled analysis of smoking and colorectal cancer: timing of exposure and interactions with environmental factors. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 21(11):1974–1985

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grady WM (2003) Genetic testing for high-risk colon cancer patients. Gastroenterology 124(6):1574–1594

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graser A, Melzer A et al (2013) Magnetic resonance colonography for the detection of colorectal neoplasia in asymptomatic adults. Gastroenterology 144:743–750.e2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grau MV, Baron JA et al (2003) Vitamin D, calcium supplementation, and colorectal adenomas: results of a randomized trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 95(23):1765–1771

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green BB, Wang CY et al (2013) An automated intervention with stepped increases in support to increase uptake of colorectal cancer screening: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 158(5 Pt 1):301–311

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haenszel W, Kurihara M (1968) Studies of Japanese migrants. I. Mortality from cancer and other diseases among Japanese in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 40(1):43–68

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanahan D, Weinberg RA (2011) Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 144(5):646–674

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hassan C, Pickhardt PJ (2013) Management of subcentimetric polyps detected by CT colonography. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 10(2):119–124

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill MJ (1975) Metabolic epidemiology of dietary factors in large bowel cancer. Cancer Res 35(11 Pt. 2):3398–3402

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Imperiale TF, Ransohoff DF (2012) Risk for colorectal cancer in persons with a family history of adenomatous polyps: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 156(10):703–709

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs ET, Ahnen DJ et al (2009) Association between body mass index and colorectal neoplasia at follow-up colonoscopy: a pooling study. Am J Epidemiol 169(6):657–666

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jasperson KW, Tuohy TM et al (2010) Hereditary and familial colon cancer. Gastroenterology 138(6):2044–2058

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jass JR (2007) Classification of colorectal cancer based on correlation of clinical, morphological and molecular features. Histopathology 50(1):113–130

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johns LE, Houlston RS (2001) A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial colorectal cancer risk. Am J Gastroenterol 96(10):2992–3003

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson CD, Chen MH et al (2008) Accuracy of CT colonography for detection of large adenomas and cancers. N Engl J Med 359(12):1207–1217

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaminski MF, Regula J et al (2010) Quality indicators for colonoscopy and the risk of interval cancer. N Engl J Med 362(19):1795–1803

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kershenbaum A, Flugelman A et al (2013) Excellent performance of Hemoccult Sensa in organised colorectal cancer screening. Eur J Cancer 49(4):923–930

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim YI (2006) Folate: a magic bullet or a double edged sword for colorectal cancer prevention? Gut 55(10):1387–1389

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knudsen AB, Lansdorp-Vogelaar I et al (2010) Cost-effectiveness of computed tomographic colonography screening for colorectal cancer in the medicare population. J Natl Cancer Inst 102(16):1238–1252

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korman LY (2012) Standardization of endoscopy reporting: déjà Vu all over again? Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 10(9):956–959

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kryukov GV, Castellano S, Novoselov SV, Lobanov AV, Zehtab O, Guigo R, Gladyshev VN (2003) Characterization of mammalian selenoproteomes. Science 300:1439–1443

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kushi LH, Doyle C et al (2012) American Cancer Society Guidelines on nutrition and physical activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activity. CA Cancer J Clin 62(1):30–67

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lance P (2008) Chemoprevention for colorectal cancer: some progress but a long way to go. Gastroenterology 134(1):341–343

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lawson KR, Ignatenko NA et al (2000) Influence of K-ras activation on the survival responses of Caco-2 cells to the chemopreventive agents sulindac and difluoromethylornithine. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9(11):1155–1162

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee IM, Shiroma EJ et al (2012) Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet 380(9838):219–229

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lengauer C, Kinzler KW et al (1998) Genetic instabilities in human cancers. Nature 396:643–649

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levin TR (2011) Optimizing colorectal cancer screening by getting FIT right. Gastroenterology 141(5):1551–1555

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin B, Lieberman DA et al (2008) Screening and Surveillance for the Early Detection of Colorectal Cancer and Adenomatous Polyps, 2008: a Joint Guideline from the American Cancer Society, the US Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer, and the American College of Radiology. CA Cancer J Clin 58:130–160

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenstein P, Holm NV et al (2000) Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer. N Engl J Med 343:78–85

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman D (2013) The cheesecake factory: lessons for expanding the menu for colorectal cancer screening. Gastroenterology 144:684–686

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman DA, Rex DK et al (2012) Guidelines for colonoscopy surveillance after screening and polypectomy: a consensus update by the US Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer. Gastroenterology 143(3):844–857

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lochhead P, Chan AT (2013) Statins and colorectal cancer. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 11(2):109–118

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Logan RF, Grainge MJ et al (2008) Aspirin and folic acid for the prevention of recurrent colorectal adenomas. Gastroenterology 134(1):29–38

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Logan RF, Patnick J et al (2012) Outcomes of the Bowel Cancer Screening Programme (BCSP) in England after the first 1 million tests. Gut 61(10):1439–1446

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mandel JS, Church TR et al (1999) Colorectal cancer mortality: effectiveness of biennial screening for fecal occult blood. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:434–437

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mandel JS, Church TR et al (2000) The effect of fecal occult-blood screening on the incidence of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 343(22):1603–1607

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Markowitz SD, Bertagnolli MM (2009) Molecular origins of cancer: molecular basis of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 361(25):2449–2460

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez ME, Willett WC (1998) Calcium, vitamin D, and colorectal cancer: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 7(2):163–168

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez ME, Baron JA et al (2009) A pooled analysis of advanced colorectal neoplasia diagnoses after colonoscopic polypectomy. Gastroenterology 136(3):832–841

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyskens FL Jr, Gerner EW et al (1998) Effect of alpha-difluoromethylornithine on rectal mucosal levels of polyamines in a randomized, double-blinded trial for colon cancer prevention. J Natl Cancer Inst 90(16):1212–1218

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyskens FL Jr, McLaren CE, Pelot D, Fujikawa-Brooks S, Carpenter PM, Hawk E, Kelloff G, Lawson MJ, Kidao J, McCracken J, Albers CG, Ahnen DJ, Turgeon DK, Goldschmid S, Lance P, Hagedom CH, Gillen DL, Gerner EW (2008) Difluoromethylornithine plus sulindac for the prevention of sporadic colorectal adenomas: a randomized placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Cancer Prev Res 1:32–38

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitka M (2008) Colorectal cancer screening rates still fall far short of recommended levels. JAMA 299(6):622

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mowat C, Cole A et al (2011) Guidelines for the management of inflammatory bowel disease in adults. Gut 60(5):571–607

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munkholm P (2003) Review article: the incidence and prevalence of colorectal cancer in inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 18(Suppl 2):1–5

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muto T, Bussey HJ et al (1975) The evolution of cancer of the colon and rectum. Cancer 36(6):2251–2270

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson EB, McQuaid KR et al (2002) Procedural success and complications of large-scale screening colonoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 55:307–314

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb PA, Norfleet RG et al (1992) Screening sigmoidoscopy and colorectal cancer mortality. J Natl Cancer Inst 84(20):1572–1575

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ng SC, Lau JY et al (2013) Increased risk of advanced neoplasms among asymptomatic siblings of patients with colorectal cancer. Gastroenterology 144(3):544–550

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen GC, Gulamhusein A et al (2012) 5-aminosalicylic Acid is not protective against colorectal cancer in inflammatory bowel disease: a meta-analysis of non-referral populations. Am J Gastroenterol 107(9):1298–1304

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niv Y, Lev-El M et al (2002) Protective effect of faecal occult blood test screening for colorectal cancer: worse prognosis for screening refusers. Gut 50(1):33–37

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noffsinger AE (2009) Serrated polyps and colorectal cancer: new pathway to malignancy. Annu Rev Pathol 4:343–364

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Osborn NK, Ahlquist DA (2005) Stool screening for colorectal cancer: molecular approaches. Gastroenterology 128(1):192–206

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pardi DS, Loftus EV Jr et al (2003) Ursodeoxycholic acid as a chemopreventive agent in patients with ulcerative colitis and primary sclerosing cholangitis. Gastroenterology 124:889–893

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park DI, Ryu S et al (2010) Comparison of guaiac-based and quantitative immunochemical fecal occult blood testing in a population at average risk undergoing colorectal cancer screening. Am J Gastroenterol 105(9):2017–2025

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson JR, Gill CI et al (2009) Diet, fecal water, and colon cancer – development of a biomarker. Nutr Rev 67(9):509–526

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peto J (2001) Cancer epidemiology in the last century and the next decade. Nature 411(6835):390–395

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pickhardt PJ (2012) Strong evidence in support of CT colonography screening. Lancet Oncol 13(1):6–7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pickhardt PJ, Choi JR et al (2003) Computed tomographic virtual colonoscopy to screen for colorectal neoplasia in asymptomatic adults. N Engl J Med 349(23):2191–2200

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pohl H, Robertson DJ (2010) Colorectal cancers detected after colonoscopy frequently result from missed lesions. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 8(10):858–864

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Popkin BM (1994) The nutrition transition in low-income countries: an emerging crisis. Nutr Rev 52(9):285–298

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Potter JD (1999) Colorectal cancer: molecules and populations. J Natl Cancer Inst 91(11):916–932

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Qaseem A, Denberg TD et al (2012) Screening for colorectal cancer: a guidance statement from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 156(5):378–386

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raja Ali RA, Dooley C et al (2011) Clinical features, treatment, and survival of patients with colorectal cancer with or without inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 9(7):584–589.e2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reddy BS, Hanson D et al (1980) Effect of high-fat, high-beef diet and of mode of cooking of beef in the diet on fecal bacterial enzymes and fecal bile acids and neutral sterols. J Nutr 110(9):1880–1887

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Regge D, Laudi C et al (2009) Diagnostic accuracy of computed tomographic colonography for the detection of advanced neoplasia in individuals at increased risk of colorectal cancer. JAMA 301(23):2453–2461

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Renehan AG, Flood A et al (2012) Body mass index at different adult ages, weight change, and colorectal cancer risk in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Cohort. Am J Epidemiol 176:1130–1140

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rex DK (2011) Can we fix colonoscopy?…Yes! Gastroenterology 140(1):19–21

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rex DK, Cutler CS et al (1997) Colonoscopic miss rates of adenomas determined by back-to-back colonoscopies. Gastroenterology 112:24–28

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rex DK, Petrini JL et al (2006) Quality indicators for colonoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 63(4 Suppl):S16–S28

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rex DK, Ahnen DJ et al (2012) Serrated lesions of the colorectum: review and recommendations from an expert panel. Am J Gastroenterol 107:1315–1329

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothwell PM, Wilson M et al (2010) Long-term effect of aspirin on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: 20-year follow-up of five randomised trials. Lancet 376(9754):1741–1750

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter M, Saunders B et al (2004) Severity of inflammation is a risk factor for colorectal neoplasia in ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology 126(2):451–459

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandler RS, Halabi S et al (2003) A randomized trial of aspirin to prevent colorectal adenomas in patients with previous colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 348:883–890

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanduleanu S, Masclee AM et al (2012) Interval cancers after colonoscopy-insights and recommendations. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 9(9):550–554

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schatzkin A, Lanza E et al (2000) Lack of effect of a low-fat, high-fiber diet on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. Polyp Prevention Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med 342(16):1149–1155

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schoen RE, Pinsky PF et al (2012) Colorectal-cancer incidence and mortality with screening flexible sigmoidoscopy. N Engl J Med 366(25):2345–2357

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Selby JV, Friedman GD et al (1992) A case-control study of screening sigmoidoscopy and mortality from colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 326(10):653–657

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel RL, Ward EM et al (2012) Trends in colorectal cancer incidence rates in the United States by tumor location and stage, 1992–2008. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 21(3):411–416

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel R, Naishadham D et al (2013) Cancer statistics, 2013. CA Cancer J Clin 63(1):11–30

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh H, Nugent Z et al (2010) The reduction in colorectal cancer mortality after colonoscopy varies by site of the cancer. Gastroenterology 139(4):1128–1137

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RA, Cokkinides V et al (2011) Cancer screening in the United States, 2011: a review of current American Cancer Society guidelines and issues in cancer screening. CA Cancer J Clin 61(1):8–30

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RA, Brooks D et al (2013) Cancer screening in the United States, 2013: a review of current American Cancer Society Guidelines, current issues in cancer screening, and new guidance on cervical cancer screening and lung cancer screening. CA Cancer J Clin 63(2):87–105

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith-Bindman R (2010) Is computed tomography safe? N Engl J Med 363(1):1–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soetikno RM, Kaltenbach T et al (2008) Prevalence of nonpolypoid (flat and depressed) colorectal neoplasms in asymptomatic and symptomatic adults. JAMA 299(9):1027–1035

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon SD, McMurray JJ et al (2005) Cardiovascular risk associated with celecoxib in a clinical trial for colorectal adenoma prevention. N Engl J Med 352(11):1071–1080

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon SD, Wittes J et al (2008) Cardiovascular risk of celecoxib in 6 randomized placebo-controlled trials: the cross trial safety analysis. Circulation 117(16):2104–2113

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spirio LN, Samowitz W et al (1998) Alleles of APC modulate the frequency and classes of mutations that lead to colon polyps. Nat Genet 20:385–388

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sporn MB, Dunlop NM et al (1976) Prevention of chemical carcinogenesis by vitamin A and its synthetic analogs (retinoids). Fed Proc 35(6):1332–1338

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • St John DJ, Young GP et al (1993) Evaluation of new occult blood tests for detection of colorectal neoplasia. Gastroenterology 104(6):1661–1668

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steinbach G, Lynch PM et al (2000) The effect of celecoxib, a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, in familial adenomatous polyposis. N Engl J Med 342:1946–1952

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stock C, Ihle P et al (2013) Adverse events requiring hospitalization within 30 days after outpatient screening and nonscreening colonoscopies. Gastrointest Endosc 77(3):419–429

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stoop EM, de Haan MC et al (2012) Participation and yield of colonoscopy versus non-cathartic CT colonography in population-based screening for colorectal cancer: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 13(1):55–64

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taubes G (2012) Cancer research. Unraveling the obesity-cancer connection. Science 335(6064):28, 30–32

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson PA, Wertheim BC et al (2009) Gender modifies the effect of ursodeoxycholic acid in a randomized controlled trial in colorectal adenoma patients. Cancer Prev Res (Phila Pa) 2(12):1023–1030

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson P, Roe DJ, Fales L, Buckmeier J, Wang F, Hamilton SR, Bhattacharyya A, Green S, Hsu CH, Chow HH, Ahnen DJ, Boland CR, Heigh RI, Fay DE, Martinez ME, Jacobs E, Ashbeck EL, Alberts DS, Lance P (2012) Design and baseline characteristics of participants in a phase III randomized trial of celecoxib and selenium for colorectal adenoma prevention. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 5:1381–1393

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thun MJ, Jacobs EJ et al (2012) The role of aspirin in cancer prevention. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 9:259–267

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tung BY, Emond MJ et al (2001) Ursodiol use is associated with lower prevalence of colonic neoplasia in patients with ulcerative colitis and primary sclerosing cholangitis. Ann Intern Med 134:89–95

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USPSTF (2008) Screening for colorectal cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 149(9):627–637

    Google Scholar 

  • USPSTF (2012) Grade definitions. From http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/grades.htm

  • van Rijn JC, Reitsma JB et al (2006) Polyp miss rate determined by tandem colonoscopy: a systematic review. Am J Gastroenterol 101(2):343–350

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venturi M, Hambly RJ et al (1997) Genotoxic activity in human faecal water and the role of bile acids: a study using the alkaline comet assay. Carcinogenesis 18(12):2353–2359

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vilar E, Gruber SB (2010) Microsatellite instability in colorectal cancer-the stable evidence. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 7(3):153–162

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • von Karsa L, Patnick J et al (2012) European guidelines for quality assurance in colorectal cancer screening and diagnosis. First Edition – Executive summary. Endoscopy 44(Suppl 3):SE1–SE8

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Joshi AD et al (2012) Carcinogen metabolism genes, red meat and poultry intake, and colorectal cancer risk. Int J Cancer 130(8):1898–1907

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ward E, Jemal A et al (2004) Cancer disparities by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. CA Cancer J Clin 54(2):78–93

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wei MY, Garland CF et al (2008) Vitamin D and prevention of colorectal adenoma: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17(11):2958–2969

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whynes DK, Frew EJ et al (2003) Colorectal cancer, screening and survival: the influence of socio-economic deprivation. Public Health 117(6):389–395

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winawer SJ, Zauber AG et al (1993a) Prevention of colorectal cancer by colonoscopic polypectomy. N Engl J Med 329:1977–1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winawer SJ, Zauber AG et al (1993b) Randomized comparison of surveillance intervals after colonoscopic removal of newly diagnosed adenomatous polyps. The National Polyp Study Workgroup. N Engl J Med 328(13):901–906

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winawer SJ, Fletcher RH et al (2003) Colorectal cancer screening and surveillance: clinical guidelines and rationale−update based on new evidence. Gastroenterology 124:544–560

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xie J, Itzkowitz SH (2008) Cancer in inflammatory bowel disease. World J Gastroenterol 14(3):378–389

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yin L, Grandi N et al (2009) Meta-analysis: longitudinal studies of serum vitamin D and colorectal cancer risk. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 30(2):113–125

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yuhara H, Steinmaus C et al (2011) Is diabetes mellitus an independent risk factor for colon cancer and rectal cancer? Am J Gastroenterol 106(11):1911–1921

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zauber AG, Winawer SJ et al (2012) Colonoscopic polypectomy and long-term prevention of colorectal-cancer deaths. N Engl J Med 366(8):687–696

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicine, University of Arizona and University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, AZ, USA

    Peter Lance MD

  2. Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona and University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, AZ, USA

    Patricia Thompson PhD

Authors
  1. Peter Lance MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Patricia Thompson PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Peter Lance MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona, USA

    David Alberts

  2. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Indiana University Schools of Medicine and Public Health, Indianapolis, Arizona, USA

    Lisa M. Hess

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lance, P., Thompson, P. (2014). Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. In: Alberts, D., Hess, L. (eds) Fundamentals of Cancer Prevention. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38983-2_13

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38983-2_13

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-38982-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-38983-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation