Abstract
This chapter outlines the methods for a new approach to create cartograms. The methodology aims to address the limitations that cartograms previously faced, and also considers the changing relevance of different spaces in geography.
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Notes
- 1.
Open source software is a software application where the source code is freely available and open to modifications by anyone, while commercial software generally remains in the domain of the producer and the source code is often kept secret. Open source software does not only have the advantage of being free of charge, but allows the user to see how the software is working and improve it where necessary.
- 2.
XTools Pro adds a range of vector spatial analysis, shape conversion, and table management tools for ArcGIS. It is distributed by DataEast LLC Russia (see http://xtoolspro.com/, last accessed 2011-06-01). A free license has been provided kindly without conditions for this PhD research.
- 3.
Cartogram Geoprocessing Tool version 2 is an external ArcGIS compatible script created by Tom Gross (Gross 2009), using the programming language C++. It is a cartogram creating tool which is available as a free extension in the ArcScript repository of ESRI (http://arcscripts.esri.com/details.asp?dbid=15638, last accessed 2011-06-01).
- 4.
Java is a so-called cross-platform developing environment released by California-based Sun Microsystems, Inc., which builds on the Java programming language (Campione et al. 2000).
- 5.
Gridded cartograms using a limited amount of data have been created with this tool and were compared to the results from the ArcGIS script. They revealed no overall differences in their capabilities, so that the tool is a viable alternative for the processing of smaller datasets.
- 6.
The storage of digital information is now usually contained in either ASCII or binary file formats (ODP 2011): ACSII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange and is a file format containing all information represented in a set of 128 characters, with each character being represented by a number from 0 to 127. It is a suitable format for transferring plain text and numbers between different computer systems and software, but inflexible to store more complex information. Binary files are encoded in the computer-only readable binary code consisting of the two binary digits 0 and 1, which can be further encoded to strings of 0s and 1s to store information. Most file formats and software products are encoded in binary formats.
- 7.
Professor Tomoki Nakaya of Ritsumeikan University (Japan) compiled the data from the original sources and provided it in support of this PhD research. It can also be obtained over the website of the Japanese National Statistics Center where it is accessible in a Japanese-only language version: http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/eStatTopPortal.do (last accessed 2011-06-01).
- 8.
The 2009 estimates are included in this table: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Product.asp?vlnk=15389. The overview of available data sets is given here: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Product.asp?vlnk=14357. Corresponding geometries are available under an Open Government Licence as GIS-compatible shapefiles from the Open Government website (http://data.gov.uk/dataset/lower_layer_super_output_area_lsoa_boundaries, all websites last accessed 2011-06-01) (ONS 2009, 2010, 2011).
- 9.
The LandScan Global Population Database is one approach for improving data quality at a global level. It uses satellite data and aerial imagery as well as additional geographic features such as roads and topography to address the constraints of GPW (Dobson et al. 2000, Salvatore et al. 2005). The GPWv3 data were preferred to the LandScan data not only because of the different licensing conditions and accessibility, but also because they included a time series allowing additional possibilities to test the capabilities of visualising temporal changes on gridded cartograms. However, LandScan may be valuable to use for visualisations where only large-scale administrative population counts are available.
- 10.
Bathymetry describes the underwater topography of the world’s oceans.
- 11.
The ETOPO1 Global Relief Model is included in the ArcGIS software, and also available on the NOAA website at http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/global.html (last accessed 2011-06-01) (Amante and Eakins 2008; NOAA 2009).
- 12.
MODIS stands for Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer. It is a satellite imaging sensor operated by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The sensor has a spatial resolution of up to 250 m, with a lower resolution of 1000 m in the full spectral coverage. The sensor records in 36 spectral bands, covering wavelengths from 405 to 2155 µm that allow a classification of the recorded pixels based on spectral differences. This classification is useful to extract information about vegetational cover (amongst other information) (NASA 2011).
- 13.
The reason for not using the 2.5 arc minute world grid in most of the calculations was a memory failure in ArcGIS (tested in versions 9.3 and 10.1) or a general and repeated crash of the software when working with the data.
- 14.
Used were the territories of the Worldmapper project, see footnote 14.
- 15.
At the time of writing in early 2011 the Occupied Palestinian Territories are not recognised as a country, although there are political efforts to declare a Palestinian state (for the geography and politics of the conflict see e.g. Quigley 2010; Shoshan 2008; Weizman 2007). This thesis is not meant as a political statement of any kind in this regard, but looks at the mere problem of accurate population data in order to create different maps of the region.
- 16.
The average resolution is calculated by using the square root of the land area and dividing it by the number of administrative units that build the original population data source. More administrative areas thus increase the average resolution that can be seen as a general indicator for the accuracy of the data for a country.
- 17.
The Landscan population database uses additional layers of information not directly related to population counts to remodel existing population grids. Such layers of information contain information about the extent of urban or built-up areas and similar information related to human settlement structures, which can be extracted from satellite data and other sources (Dobson et al. 2000). Such approaches result in more detailed estimates but are more suitable on a global scale because the level of detail of these additional sources is not larger than that of the original 2.5 arc minute grid.
- 18.
The outlined approach has been developed as part of the research for this PhD thesis. Most of the manual work at the reallocation of the population values was done by Joe Harriman of the University of Sheffield as part of his research for a Master dissertation on inequalities between Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories and is also described in his unpublished technical documentation of this collaborative project.
- 19.
The City of London refers to the City of London Corporation in the centre of the mapped area.
- 20.
One could argue that there are people living on the oceans (see e.g. Pugh 2004), but the total numbers matter less when looking at the global population distribution. In addition, the nomadic way of life does not allow an accurate location of that population (and even settled population is constantly on the move as well). They are also not taken into consideration by the GPW data.
- 21.
The geographical extent can vary on the coastal zones if—as it has been done in the input grid—the underlying grid is intersected at the continents. Unlike administrative borders which can change, these irregular fractions of a grid cell do not change over time unless major geological events change the shapes of the continents. There may also be slight divergences in the Worldmapper geometry and that of GPWv3. They are so small that they can be neglected in the mapping operation.
- 22.
The allowed values in the script must be multiples of 128 to maximally 4096—a value larger than the actual grid does not result in a better quality of the cartogram transformation, but it should also not be below the grid size.
- 23.
The resolution is calculated as follows: 1 geographical latitude/longitudinal degree consists of 60 arc minutes, hence a resolution of 2.5 arc minutes means 24 grid cells in 1°. 360 degrees longitude result in 8,640 grid cells and 180 degrees latitude in 4,320 grid cells.
- 24.
Computing times for the techniques outlined in this chapter ranged from hours to several days on the described computer configurations that were outlined in Sect. 3.2.1.
- 25.
The series of gridded country cartograms was created in the first year of research and took approximately six months of work, which was conducted in parallel to the continuation of the research for this PhD thesis.
- 26.
Used were the territories of the Worldmapper project.
- 27.
These orientations are not completely accurate descriptions, as it lies in the nature of the gridded cartograms that the Prime Meridian does not exactly split the map in two equal parts, as well as the North–South orientation of the grid cells is not always a straight line from top to bottom.
- 28.
Information about the largest cities of a country was obtained from the GeoNames database (Wick 2010).
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Hennig, B.D. (2013). Creating Gridded Cartograms. In: Rediscovering the World. Springer Theses. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-34848-8_3
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