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Nationalism and the Catholic Church: Papal Politics and ‘Nationalist’ Clergy in Border Regions (1918–1939)

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The Nation State and Beyond

Abstract

The Roman Catholic Church was highly ambivalent regards the emergence of modern nation states. On the one hand, several ideological and structural aspects underscored the church’s universal nature, whereas nationalisms, on the other hand, also had a strong impact on its development. Rather than generally questioning transnational structures within the church, this article aims to analyse the limits of Catholic universalism in the interwar period, focusing both on Vatican politics and on conflicts between the church and nation states in border regions. The article demonstrates that the church’s universal claims only partially contributed to bridging the borders of the existing nation states.

I owe many thanks to Johannes Schnocks and Gregor Klapczynski for their comments and helpful hints concerning passages from the Old and New Testaments.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Altermatt 2007, p. 16.

  2. 2.

    There are, however, various studies which have discussed particular aspects of this topic: Alix 1962; Altermatt 2005, 2009; Altgeld 2001; Birke 1996; Conzemius 1994, pp. 234–262. Analyzing the relations between nationalism and Catholicism in Germany: Richter 2000; for the Hapsburg Empire: Gottsmann 2006; id. 2007; id. 2010, pp. 28–34; for the relations between nationalism and religion, cf. for instance: Graf 2000; Haupt and Langewiesche 2004; Langewiesche 2009; Mergel 2008; O’Brian 1988.

  3. 3.

    Stehlin 1983; Latour 1996b La Papauté.

  4. 4.

    Altermatt 2007, pp. 15–33.

  5. 5.

    Langewiesche 2000, pp. 145–147.

  6. 6.

    Religious networks are rather briefly mentioned in Herren 2009, pp. 43 f., Lyons 1963, pp. 245–261; for the so-called “black international” see Lamberts 2002.

  7. 7.

    Saunier 2009, p. 1047.

  8. 8.

    Cf. Conzemius 1985, p. 12; Altermatt 2009, p. 23.

  9. 9.

    There are in fact many studies that are dedicated to similar organizations. Cf., for example, Habermas 2008, p. 658 and Altermatt 2009, pp. 209–226.

  10. 10.

    Cf. Heather Ellis in this volume.

  11. 11.

    Brechenmacher 2005, pp. 596 f.

  12. 12.

    This passage corresponds to the Old Testament’s Psalm 100:3: “Know that the LORD, he is God!/It is he who made us, and we are his;/we are his people, and the sheep of his pasture.”

  13. 13.

    In this translation, the term “nation” is used for “έθνος,” which, in the Greek text, has a much broader sense and could also be translated as “peoples” or (in the New Testament) as “pagans”; this term could not therefore be applied to the phenomenon of modern nationalism, although modern translations provide a basis for respective (mis-)interpretations.

  14. 14.

    “Concilium Vaticanum I.,” 1990, p. 815.

  15. 15.

    Leo XIII 1903, p. 17.

  16. 16.

    CIC 1917, Can. 218; cf. Scholder 1977, p. 66.

  17. 17.

    Although it could be argued that religious processions or church services contributed common “transnational” sets of ‘Catholic’ experiences and memory, one should also take into consideration that even seemingly apolitical issues such as liturgy can contain ‘national’ peculiarities; cf. Gottsmann 2006, pp. 441–450; Gottsmann 2010, pp. 38–46.

  18. 18.

    Cf. Fleckenstein and Schmiedl 2005; Weiss 1978, pp. 821–877.

  19. 19.

    Leo XIII 1963, pp. 18–22, § 26–30; Leo XIII 1903, pp. 7–15. Immortale dei explicitly referred to Matthew 22: 21: “Give to Caesar what is Caesar’s, and to God what is God’s”, thus transferring a concept originally applied to the ancient Roman Empire to modern nation-states; Leo XIII 1903, p. 23.

  20. 20.

    However, some of the translations of the encyclicals did not match the Latin original literally; the German translation of the encyclical “Divini illius magistri” (1930), for example, translated “societas civilis” with “Volksgemeinschaft”, a term which was employed by most of the political movements in the Republic of Weimar, but also belonged to the key vocabulary of National Socialism; Pius XI 1930, pp. 26–27. Cf. Wildt 2009.

  21. 21.

    Pius XI 1923, p. 26, translation according to: Pius XI 1922, paragraph 25; “patriotism”, here, is used as a translation of “caritas patriae”, whereas “nationalism” is a rather free translation of “immoderatum […] nationis amorem”.

  22. 22.

    Anonymous 1924.

  23. 23.

    Cf. Langewiesche 2000, pp. 45–54.

  24. 24.

    For the following sketch of the motives of Papal politics, cf. Brechenmacher 2005, pp. 597–604.

  25. 25.

    Moos 2007, pp. 242–250.

  26. 26.

    For an overview of the European dimension of the conflicts between Churches and nation-states, see Rémond 2000, pp. 125–168, 189–205; for the ‘culture wars’ in a European perspective, see Clark 2002, pp. 7–37.

  27. 27.

    Gottsmann 2007, pp. 457–466.

  28. 28.

    Gottsmann 2006, pp. 409–418.

  29. 29.

    Brechenmacher 2009, p. 181.

  30. 30.

    For instance, the Polish Concordat concluded in February 1925 was also valid for the Free City of Danzig (Article III), which was the subject of claims made by the German nation-state; Concordato con la Polonia, 1954, in: Mercati 1954, p. 31; Stehlin 1983, p. 416. Likewise too the Concordat concluded with Prussia in April 1929 was challenged by Polish nationalists because of the enhancement of the Diocese of Wroclaw; Concordato con la Prussia (14.4.1929), in: Mercati 1954, p. 135; cf. Stehlin 1983, p. 423.

  31. 31.

    For the concordats, cf. Feldkamp 2000, pp. 54–61.

  32. 32.

    Brechenmacher 2005, pp. 600 f.

  33. 33.

    Latour 1996b, Papauté, p. 301.

  34. 34.

    Chiron 2004, p. 152.

  35. 35.

    Cholvy and Hilaire 1986, pp. 273–276; Moos 2007, pp. 246–250.

  36. 36.

    Cf. Chenaux 2003, pp. 85–121.

  37. 37.

    Ibid., p. 121.

  38. 38.

    Brechenmacher 2009, pp. 184–190.

  39. 39.

    For example, the Barberini Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644) was widely known for his sympathies towards the French state; cf. Seppelt and Schwaiger 1964, p. 328.

  40. 40.

    Annuario Pontificio 1926, pp. 31–57, 457–485.

  41. 41.

    Moos 2007, pp. 241–250.

  42. 42.

    Latour 1996a, “De la spécificité”, p. 353.

  43. 43.

    Stehlin 1983, p. 7.

  44. 44.

    Anger 2007; Klee to Bergen (11.4.1930), in: Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes (Berlin), Bestand Rom-Vatikan 1067: Deutsche in Kongregationen und Päpstlichen Behörden (1928–1938); Bergen to Grünau (21.2.1933), Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes (Berlin), Bestand Rom-Vatikan 1067: Deutsche in Kongregationen und Päpstlichen Behörden (1928–1938).

  45. 45.

    Bergen to AA (6.4.1934), in: Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes (Berlin), Bestand Rom-Vatikan 440, p. 2.

  46. 46.

    Cf. Lyttelton 1973.

  47. 47.

    Cf. Lill 2002, pp. 69–118.

  48. 48.

    For Alsatian regional identity cf. Fisch 2002; Dreyfus 1969; Dreyfus 1979; Harvey 2001. For Catholicism in Alsace-Lorraine cf. Baechler 1982; Schulze 2010.

  49. 49.

    Cf. Altermatt 2009, p. 85.

  50. 50.

    Marschall 1980, p. 158.

  51. 51.

    Gelmi 1984; Dörrer 1955, p. 68.

  52. 52.

    Memorandum of the Vatican’s Secretariat of State (24.1.1921), Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Rome), Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari, Austria, 3. Per., Pos. 1408, fasc. 566, 28r–32r.

  53. 53.

    For instance, the Tyrolean boys’ boarding school in Schwaz was founded in 1927 as an equivalent of the diocesan institution “Vincentinum” at Brixen (South Tyrol); Apostolische Administratur Innsbruck-Feldkirch to Sibilia (13.7.1926), in: Diözesanarchiv Brixen, Bestand Hamherr, no. 1.

  54. 54.

    Lorson 1948, pp. 135–156; Schulze 2010, p. 174; prayer read by Mons. Charles Ruch (24.11.1928), in: Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes (Berlin), R 30201a: Elsass-Lothringen A: Die Stellung Elsass-Lothringens im französ. Staat sowie die elsass-lothring. Autonomiefrage, Bd. 2: März 1928–März 1934, p. 77.

  55. 55.

    Cf. Gelmi 1984, p. 262.

  56. 56.

    For the case of the Upper Silesian plebiscite of 1921, cf. Besier and Piombo 2004, pp. 72–78.

  57. 57.

    During World War I, the Roman Catholic Church showed a similar attitude concerning linguistic conflicts in Quebec: Epistola Benedikt XV to Card. Bégin (8.9.1916), in: Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) 8 (1916), pp. 389–442; Epistola Benedikt XV to Kard. Bégin (7.6.1918), in: Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS) 10 (1918), pp. 439–442.

  58. 58.

    Raffl to secretariat of state (25.11.1923), Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Rome), Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari, Italia, 4. Per., Pos. 542, Fasc. 5, 7r-8v.

  59. 59.

    Undated letter of the South Tyrolean clergy to the Pope, Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Rome), Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari, Italia, 4. Per., Pos. 644, Fasc. 72, 30r-31r, at 30r.

  60. 60.

    Endrici to Gasparri (28.11.1923), Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Rome), Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari, Italia, 4. Per., Pos. 542, Fasc. 5, 21r-22v, at 22v.

  61. 61.

    In some of the existing historiographical studies about this subject, Endrici is regarded as an opponent of the claims of the German minority. Cf. Marzari 1974, p. 55.

  62. 62.

    Lill 2002, p. 113.

  63. 63.

    Letter of the catholic priests and laymen to the Pope (undated copy), Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Rome), Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari, Italia, 4. Per., Pos. 644a, Fasc. 83, 80r-85r, at 80r-81r; the last sentence refers to a decree of the South Tyrolean local authorities (1927) to Italianize the German names carved on tombstones; Lill 2002, p. 112.

  64. 64.

    Riederer to Pius XI (31.10.1932), Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Rome), Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari, Italia, 4. Per., Pos. 644, Fasc. 76, 89r-92r, at 91rv.

  65. 65.

    Letter of the secretariat of state to Ignaz Rieder, Archbishop of Salzburg (undated draft), Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Rome), Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari, Italia, 4. Per., Pos. 644, Fasc. 76, 88rv.

  66. 66.

    Geissler to secretariat of state (3.12.1934), Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Rome), Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari, Italia, 4. Per., Pos. 644, Fasc. 79, 19r-20r, at 19r; Mutschlechner to unknown addressee (2.12.1934), Archivio Segreto Vaticano (Rome), Affari Ecclesiastici Straordinari, Italia, 4. Per., Pos. 644, Fasc. 79, 23r-27r, at 25r-27r.

  67. 67.

    Schulze 2010, p. 176; for French primary instruction cf. Klaus Dittrich in this volume.

  68. 68.

    Various authors 1930, p. 281.

  69. 69.

    Alsace and Lorraine were in fact the only provinces of France in which the Napoleonic concordat of 1801 was still valid; Schulze 2010, p. 170.

  70. 70.

    Cf. Baechler 1985, p. 297.

  71. 71.

    Ruch 1924, p. 291.

  72. 72.

    Defensor 1926, p. 125.

  73. 73.

    Rossé et al. 1936, pp. 671 f.

  74. 74.

    Cf. Harvey 2001.

  75. 75.

    Ein Schulplebiszit in Colmar, in: Elsässer Kurier 28 (16.03.1925) no. 63, p. 2.

  76. 76.

    Cf. Schulze 2010, pp. 183–192.

  77. 77.

    Epp 2004, pp. 430 f.; Harvey 2001, pp. 152–162.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. EXC “Religion and Politics in Pre-Modern and Modern Cultures”, University of Münster, Münster, Germany

    Thies Schulze

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  1. Thies Schulze
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Correspondence to Thies Schulze .

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  1. , History Department, Heidelberg University, Grabengasse 3-5, Heidelberg, 69117, Germany

    Isabella Löhr

  2. , EXC "Asia and Europe", Karl Jaspers Centre, Voßstraße, Gebäude 4400 2, Heidelberg, 69115, Germany

    Roland Wenzlhuemer

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Schulze, T. (2013). Nationalism and the Catholic Church: Papal Politics and ‘Nationalist’ Clergy in Border Regions (1918–1939). In: Löhr, I., Wenzlhuemer, R. (eds) The Nation State and Beyond. Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32934-0_11

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