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The World Customs Organization and its Role in the System of World Trade: An Overview

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European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2012

Part of the book series: European Yearbook of International Economic Law ((EUROYEAR,volume 3))

Abstract

This series of contributions to the European Yearbook of International Economic Law examines the activities of the World Customs Organization and explains their significance for world trade.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For a detailed history of customs see generally Asakura, World History of the Customs and Tariffs, 2002.

  2. 2.

    Wolffgang, Emerging Issues in European Customs Law, World Customs Journal, 1 (2007) 1, pp. 3–4, available at: http://www.worldcustomsjournal.org/media/wcj/-2007/1/Emerging_issues_in_European_customs_law.pdf.

  3. 3.

    See McLinden, Integrity in Customs, Legal Framework for Customs Operations and Enforcement Issues, in: de Wulf/Sokol (eds.), Customs Modernization Handbook, 2005, p. 68, available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEXPCOMNET/Resources/Customs_Modernization_Handbook.pdf.

  4. 4.

    On the symbolic meaning of the portcullis, see: The Portcullis, House of Commons Information Office, Factsheet 9, General Series, Revised August 2010, available at: http://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons-information-office/g09.pdf.

  5. 5.

    According to one internationally agreed definition of customs’ functions, customs enforces the law, collects duties and taxes, clears goods promptly and ensure compliance. See the Introduction to the Revised International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs Procedures, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/Kyoto_New/Content/content.html.

  6. 6.

    See Mikuriya, Legal Framework for Customs Operations and Enforcement Issues, in: de Wulf/Sokol (eds.), Customs Modernization Handbook, 2005, p. 62 with further references, available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEXPCOMNET/Resources/Customs_Modernization_Handbook.pdf.

  7. 7.

    For an overview of the powers and constitutional position of US Customs (CBP) see Dallimore, Securing the Supply Chain: Does the Container Security Initiative Comply with WTO Law?, 2008, pp. 99–102 with further references, available at: http://miami.uni-muenster.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate-4781/diss_dallimore.PDF.

  8. 8.

    See generally Bhala, Fighting Bad Guys with International Trade Law, University of California at Davis Law Review 31 (1997) 1, with reference to US legislation. On the role of trade sanctions see United Nations, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility, Report of the Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, 2004, p. 55, paras. 178 et seq, full report available at: http://www.un.org/secureworld/report3.pdf.

  9. 9.

    The Great Council of Ragusa (today known as Dubrovnik) passed a Decree in 1377 imposing a quarantine period of 30 days for ships and passengers entering the city. See Gensini et al., The Concept of Quarantine in History: From Plague to SARS in: Journal of Infection 49 (2004), pp. 257–259, available at: http://www.birdflubook.com/resources/0Gensini257.pdf.

  10. 10.

    Cf. Art. 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969.

  11. 11.

    As one writer points out: “When a government enforces conditions or exactions on entry into its jurisdiction, a frontier becomes a barrier”: see I.C. and R.G.H., Western Union, The World Today 5 (1949) 4, pp. 170 et seq. (179), available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40392221 (subscription only).

  12. 12.

    For details on the French tariff see Asakura, World History of the Customs and Tariffs, 2002, pp. 193–194.

  13. 13.

    The Tariff Act 1930, P.L. 71-361.

  14. 14.

    For an investigation into the importance of customs procedures for world trade as well as the methodology of measuring trade facilitation, see Creskoff, Trade Facilitation: An Often Overlooked Engine of Trade Expansion, Global Trade and Customs Journal 3 (2008) 1, pp. 1 et seq.

  15. 15.

    On the tension between global governance and global sovereignty, see generally, Morais, The Quest for International Standards: Global Governance vs. Sovereignty, University of Kansas Law Review 50 (2002), pp. 779 et seq. (787).

  16. 16.

    For an overview of national jurisdiction in European customs law see Lux, Guide to Community Customs Legislation, (2nd ed.) 2002, pp. 32-36.

  17. 17.

    Many provisions of the GATT directly relate to customs matters including Art. I (MFN principle); Art. II (schedule of concessions); Art. V (freedom of transit); Art. VI (anti-dumping and countervailing duties); Art. VII (valuation for customs purposes); Art. VIII (fees and formalities connected with import and export), Art. XI (abolition of quantitative restrictions) and Art. XXVIIIbis (tariff negotiations). Concerning the conventions of the WCO see Gottschlich, The World Wide Development of International Customs Law, International Business Law Journal 7 (1988), pp. 947 et seq. (954–956).

  18. 18.

    See generally on Art. XXI GATT, Hahn, Vital Interests and the Law of GATT: An Analysis of GATT’s Security Exception, Michigan Journal of International Law 12 (1991), pp. 558 et seq., Schloemann/Ohlhoff, Constitutionalization and Dispute Settlement in the WTO: National Security as an Issue of Competence, American Journal of International Law 93 (1999), pp. 424 et seq.

  19. 19.

    For an overview of the challenges of globalization from a customs perspective, see Gordhan, Customs in the 21st Century, World Customs Journal 1 (2007) 1, pp. 49–52, available at: http://www.worldcustomsjournal.org/media/wcj/-2007/1/Customs_in_the_21st_century.pdf.

  20. 20.

    See the North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act 1993, Public Law No: 103-182, (H.R. 3450), Title VI (Customs Modernization). This legislation has been described as “the most sweeping regulatory reform legislation since the U.S. Customs Service was organized in 1789.” See “Everything Changed 1989 – 2003”, US Customs Today, February 2003, available at: http://www.cbp.gov/xp/CustomsToday/2003/February/everything.xml.

  21. 21.

    See generally Flynn, America the Vulnerable, 2004; Gerencser et al., Port Security Wargame, Implications for U.S. Supply Chains, 2002, available at: http://www.boozallen.com/media/file/128648.pdf.

  22. 22.

    The Container Security Initiative (CSI) was announced by the former U.S. Customs Commissioner in 2002; see Robert C. Bonner, U.S. Customs Commissioner, Remarks before the Centre for Strategic and International Studies, 17th January, 2002, available at: http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/newsroom/speeches_statements/archives/2002/jan172002.xml.

  23. 23.

    See generally Mikuriya, The Customs Response to the 21st Century, Global Trade and Customs Journal 2 (2007) 2, p. 21. On the changing role of customs in relation to security and facilitation, see also Widdowson, The Changing Role of Customs: Evolution or Revolution?” World Customs Journal 1 (2007) 1, pp. 31 et seq, available at: http://www.worldcustomsjournal.org/media/wcj/-2007/1/The_changing_role_of_Customs_evolution_or_revolution.pdf.

  24. 24.

    Art. II, Section 2, Annex to the Founding Convention.

  25. 25.

    A list of member states is available on the WCO Website at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/About%20Us/Members_table_174_EN.pdf. The European Union joined the World Customs Organization following a resolution by the WCO Council on 30th June, 2007: see Commission Proposal for a Council Decision on the accession of the European Communities to the World Customs Organisation and the exercise of rights and obligations akin to membership ad interim Brussels, 14th May, 2007, COM(2007) 252 final.

  26. 26.

    For an overview of its creation see Asakura, World History of the Customs and Tariffs, 2002, pp. 287 et seq.

  27. 27.

    Anon, Reflections on the Marshall Offer, The World Today 3 (1947) 8, pp. 336 et seq., available at: http://www.jstor.org/pss/40392042. See also D.K.M.K., The World Today 3 (1947) 4, pp. 155 et seq. (161), available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40392010 (both subscription only).

  28. 28.

    See I.C. and R.G.H., Western Union, The World Today 5 (1949) 4, pp. 170 et seq. (179), available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40392221 (subscription only).

  29. 29.

    Anon, Notes of the Month: Steps Towards European Co-operation, The World Today 4 (1948) 3, available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40392093 (both subscription only).

  30. 30.

    Schokking/Anderson, Observations on the European Integration Process, The Journal of Conflict Resolution 4 (1960) 4, pp. 389 et seq. (391), available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable172723 (subscription only).

  31. 31.

    See Art. 6 of the Convention for European Economic Co-operation 1948; Robertson, Different Approaches to European Unity, The American Journal of Comparative 3 (1954) 4, pp. 502 et seq. (508-509), available at: http://www.jstor.org/pss/837596 (subscription only).

  32. 32.

    The major difficulty lay in the pre-requisite of “a common political authority with an importance perhaps equal to or greater than that of the national Governments or the constituent countries.” Quoted from A.N.O., Reflections on the Marshall Offer, The World Today 3 (1947) 8, pp. 336 et seq. (345), available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40392042. The difficulties in creating a customs union were confirmed by the planned Franco-Italian customs union. See A.C., Franco-Italian Customs Union, The World Today 4 (1948) 11, pp. 481 et seq. (482), available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40392074 (both subscription only).

  33. 33.

    Signed in Brussels on 15th December, 1950, entered into force on 4th November, 1952: see United Nations Treaty Collection, Vol. 157, I-2052.

  34. 34.

    Gottschlich, The World Wide Development of International Customs Law, International Business Law Journal 7 (1988), pp. 947 et seq. (952 et seq.)

  35. 35.

    An overview of the creation of the WCO and historical milestones, is available at the WCO website: http://www.wcoomd.org/home_about_us_auhistory.htm.

  36. 36.

    See Asakura, World History of the Customs and Tariffs, 2002, p. 290, pointing out that the CCC was the second largest international organization next to the WTO and that by the end of the 1980s its membership had increased to 102.

  37. 37.

    See World Customs Organization, Mission, Objective, Activities, 2009/2010, p. 2, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/About%20Us/DEPL%20OMD%20UK%20A4.pdf.

  38. 38.

    However, the European Union and its 27 Member States together constitute the largest contributor, accounting for 32.76% of the WCO’s budget. In 2009, the total budget of the WCO amounted to 15,016,603.75 Euros. See Sonnenfeld, Warum sind die Mitgliedstaaten der Europäischen Union noch „selbständige“ Mitglieder bei der WZO?, Außenwirtschaftliche Praxis (2009) 10, pp. 145–146.

  39. 39.

    Terms of Reference of WCO Working Bodies, August 2010, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/About%20Us/Terms%20Reference%20WB%20E_Rev20090513.pdf.

  40. 40.

    E.g. the SECURE Working Group set up in 2008 to examine intellectual property issues was disbanded after members complained about its terms of reference. See Speech by Kunio Mikuriya, WCO, Strengthening the Fight against Counterfeiting and Piracy, 3rd Pan-European Intellectual Property Summit, 4th and 5th December, 2008, available at http://www.wcoomd.org/speeches/?v=1&lid=1&cid=10.

  41. 41.

    Art. VII, Founding Convention. However, these two meetings are held concurrently in June. See WCO, Terms of Reference for the Council, Terms of Reference for WCO Working Bodies, August 2010, para. 5.

  42. 42.

    See WCO, Terms of Reference for the Council, Terms of Reference for WCO Working Bodies, August 2010, para. 5.

  43. 43.

    Article V, Founding Convention. Nowadays, it is also assisted by the Policy Commission and Finance Committee: see WCO, Terms of Reference for the Council, Terms of Reference for WCO Working Bodies, August 2010, para. 5.

  44. 44.

    According to the authors’ estimation, the First Session of the Capacity Building Committee held in Brussels on the 22nd November, 2010 was attended by 106 Heads of Delegation, 50 alternative representatives, 49 advisors, 16 representatives of capacity building bodies, eleven university representatives, 54 observers and two other invitees. See WCO, Report of the Capacity Building Committee, Doc. No. HC0008E19, 22nd November, 2010, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Capacity%20Building/HC0008E1.pdf.

  45. 45.

    See Matsudaira, Trade Facilitation, Customs and the World Customs Organization: Introduction to the WCO Trade Facilitation Instruments, Global Trade and Customs Journal 2 (2007) 6, pp. 243 et seq. (250), Chart 3C.

  46. 46.

    See Speech by Kunio Mikuriya, WCO, “Strengthening the Fight against Counterfeiting and Piracy”, 3rd Pan-European Intellectual Property Summit, 4th and 5th December, 2008, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/speeches/?v=1&lid=1&cid=10. At the same time, developing countries are strongly involved in the fight against counterfeit medicines. See Address by French President Jacques Chirac at the World Customs Organization Council Session, 24th June, 2010, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Highlights/Discours_Jacques_Chirac_Conseil_2010.pdf.

  47. 47.

    The following descriptions of the Policy Commission, audit Committee and Permanent Technical Committee were summarized from the Terms of Reference for the Policy Commission, in: Terms of Reference for WCO Working Bodies, August 2010.

  48. 48.

    Summarized from the PSCG’s website. Terms of reference available at: http://www.wcopscg.org/what_we_do.html.

  49. 49.

    For an overview of each see Matsudaira, Trade Facilitation, Customs and the World Customs Organization: Introduction to the WCO Trade Facilitation Instruments, Global Trade and Customs Journal 2 (2007) 6, pp. 243 et seq. (251).

  50. 50.

    A convention is a source of international law according to Art. 38 a. of the Statute of the International Court of Justice; according to Art. 31 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, states are obliged to perform their obligations under treaties in good faith (see e.g. Art. III of the HS Convention).

  51. 51.

    See Article III (e) and Article IX of the Founding Convention. Concerning the possibility of establishing such a body see Rovetta, The European Community Joins the World Customs Organization: Time to Create a WCO Dispute Settlement Mechanism?, Global Trade and Customs Journal 3 (2008) 1, pp. 51 et seq. (51–52).

  52. 52.

    See WCO, The Nature of WCO Recommendations and the Procedure for their Acceptance, 21st July, 1995, p.1, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Recommendations/Recommendations_General.pdf; Gottschlich, The World Wide Development of International Customs Law, International Business Law Journal 7 (1988), pp. 947 et seq. (950 et seq.).

  53. 53.

    However, they do not have the same force as a treaty: see WCO, The Nature of WCO Recommendations and the Procedure for their Acceptance, 21st July, 1995, p.1.

  54. 54.

    However, this possibility does not appear to have been utilized: see e.g. the WCO’s webpage “WCO Council Recommendations Related to Customs Procedures and Facilitation”, which does not refer to any Recommendations issued in respect of dispute settlement, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/home_pfoverviewboxes_tools_and_instruments_pfrecommendationslist.htm.

  55. 55.

    Matsudaira, Trade Facilitation, Customs and the World Customs Organization: Introduction to the WCO Trade Facilitation Instruments, Global Trade and Customs Journal, 2 (2007) 6, pp. 243 et seq. (251).

  56. 56.

    See McLinden, Integrity in Customs, Legal Framework for Customs Operations and Enforcement Issues, in: de Wulf/Sokol (eds.), Customs Modernization Handbook, 2005, pp. 72–74 (explaining the non-prescriptive approach).

  57. 57.

    See SAFE Framework of Standards to Secure and Facilitate Global Trade, 2007, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/SAFE%20Framework_EN_2007_for_publication.pdf. The legal status of the SAFE Framework is uncertain: the foreword to the Framework refers to it as a “unique international instrument”. However, it is non-prescriptive and arguably resembles a Declaration.

  58. 58.

    As referred to in the Preamble and Art. III(e) of the Founding Convention. The Convention on Nomenclature for the Classification of Goods in Customs Tariffs and the Convention on the Valuation of Goods for Customs Purposes were signed on the same day as the Founding Convention, namely the 15th December, 1950.

  59. 59.

    Prepared by the Secretariat and submitted to the Policy Commission for review. The plan is then submitted to the Council which finalizes and adopts it. See Terms of Reference for the Policy Commission, in: Terms of Reference for WCO Working Bodies, para. 4(d).

  60. 60.

    See Resolution of the Customs Co-operation Council on the Role of Customs in the 21st Century, June 2008, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Resolutions/Role%20of%20Customs%20in%20the%2021st%20Century%20_June%202008_.pdf; see also World Customs Organization, Customs in the 21st Century: Enhancing Growth and Development through Trade and Facilitation and Border Security, June 2008, para. 2, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Annex%20II%20-%20Customs%20in%20the%2021st%20Century.pdf.

  61. 61.

    See World Customs Organization, Mission, Objective, Activities, 2009/2010, p. 3, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/About%20Us/DEPL%20OMD%20UK%20A4.pdf.

  62. 62.

    The first tariff table dates back to A.D. 136 and was issued by Palmyra in Syria. Reproduced in Asakura, World History of the Customs and Tariffs, 2002, pp. 70–73.

  63. 63.

    For example, it hindered the introduction of electronic data processing and consistent analysis of trade data. See Wind, HS 2007: What’s It All About? Global Trade and Customs Journal 2 (2007) 2, p. 80; Chaplin, An Introduction to the Harmonized System, North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation 12 (1987), pp. 417 et seq. (423 et seq.).

  64. 64.

    See e.g., Report of the Panel, European Communities – Customs Classification of Certain Computer Equipment, WT/DS62/R, 5th February, 1998, p. 53, para. 6.36.

  65. 65.

    Concluded in Brussels on 15th December, 1950. It entered into force on the 11th September, 1959. See United Nations Treaty Series, Vol. 347, I-4994.

  66. 66.

    Gottschlich, The World Wide Development of International Customs Law, International Business Law Journal 7 (1988), pp. 947 et seq. (955 et seq.)

  67. 67.

    Concluded in Brussels on 14th June, 1983. It entered into force on the 1st of January, 1988. See United Nations Treaty Series, Vol. 1503, I-25910.

  68. 68.

    For example, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Union consists of the 8 digits: the HS nomenclature with 2 additional digits indentifying the CN subheadings. See Regulation (EEC) No. 2658/87, OJ [1987] L 256/1.

  69. 69.

    The HS Committee is also assisted by a Sub-Committee, which reviews the HS under its general guidance and proposes amendments. See WCO, Terms of Reference for the Harmonized System Review Sub-Committee, Terms of Reference for WCO Working Bodies, August 2010.

  70. 70.

    A list of signatories is available at the WCO’s website: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/HarmonizedSystem/Countries_applying_HS_Eng_20100626.pdf.

  71. 71.

    Art. II of the GATT states: “No contracting party shall alter its method of determining dutiable value or of converting currencies so as to impair the value of any of the concessions provided for in the appropriate Schedule annexed to this Agreement.”

  72. 72.

    Concluded in Brussels on 15th December, 1950. It entered into force on 28th July, 1953. See United Nations Treaty Series Vol. 171, I-2234.

  73. 73.

    See Witte/Wolffgang (eds.), Lehrbuch des Europäischen Zollrechts, (6th ed.) 2009, pp. 377, 378 et seq.

  74. 74.

    The individual functions of the Technical Committee are listed in paras. 2 (a) – (g), Annex II of the Customs Valuation Agreement 1994.

  75. 75.

    These are issued in the WCO Customs Value Compendium, which includes the instruments of the WCO Technical Committee on Customs Valuation, an Index of Valuation Rulings and Conclusions from Member administrations. The Compendium is updated annually, available at (subscription only): http://bookshop.wcoomdpublications.org/catalogsearch/result/?q=WCO%20Customs%20Valuation%20Compendium.

  76. 76.

    See Art. 19 of the WTO Customs Valuation Agreement 1994.

  77. 77.

    See e.g., Art. 37 of Annex 23 of the Implementing Provisions to the Community Customs Code, under Art. 31(1) no.(2) which requires customs administrations to apply “reasonable flexibility” when applying the valuation methods.

  78. 78.

    See Chapter 2, General Annex of the Revised International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs Procedures.

  79. 79.

    The need for simplifying formalities is also reflected in Article VIII of the GATT. The importance of this subject for development is underlined by Goal 8: A Global Partnership for Development of the Millenium Goals, which refers inter alia to the further development of “an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system.”, available at: http://www.undp.org/mdg/goal8.shtml.

  80. 80.

    For a statistical overview of these aspects see the World Bank, Doing Business: Trading Across Borders website, which compares data from 183 countries. For example, as of June 2010 the time required for export ranged from five to 80 days and the related cost per container from $ 450 to $3, 280. Statistics available at: http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploretopics/trading-across-borders.

  81. 81.

    Concluded on 25th September, 1974. It entered into force on the 25th September, 1974. See United Nations Treaty Series, Vol. 950, I-13561.

  82. 82.

    The text of the RKC is available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/Kyoto_New/Content/content.html.

  83. 83.

    Art. 12(1), (2) and Art. 13(1)-(3) RKC. However, the signatories can choose which provisions of the specific annexes to apply.

  84. 84.

    See WCO, Revised Kyoto Convention: Your Questions Answered, February 2006, p. 4, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Procedures%20and%20Facilitation/kyoto_yourquestionsanswered.pdf.

  85. 85.

    WCO, Revised Kyoto Convention: Your Questions Answered, February 2006, p. 7.

  86. 86.

    See Cooperative G8 Action on Transport Security, issued at the Kananaskis Summit, 26th and 27th June, 2002, available at: http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/g8/summit-sommet/2002/transport_security-securite_transport.aspx?lang=eng.

  87. 87.

    WCO, Resolution of the Customs and Co-operation Council on Security and Facilitation of the International Supply Chain, June 2004, paragraph A (3), available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Resolutions/Global_Security-Facilitation_Measures_Int_Trade_Supply_Chain.pdf.

  88. 88.

    See Resolution of the Customs Co-operation Council on the Framework of Standards to Secure and Facilitate Global Trade, June 2005, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Conventions/Framework%20of%20Standards%20to%20Secure%20and%20Facilitate%20Global%20Tra%C3%A2%E2%82%AC%C2%A6.pdf.

  89. 89.

    Resolution of the Customs Co-operation Council on the Framework of Standards to Secure and Facilitate Global Trade, June 2006, p. 3, para. (4), available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Enforcement/FSSecure_FGT_062006.pdf. See also WCO, Business Case for the Columbus Programme, July 2008, pp. 12 et seq, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Capacity%20Building/columbus/columbus_pg_bc.pdf.

  90. 90.

    WCO, Revised Kyoto Convention: Your Questions Answered, February 2006, p. 9.

  91. 91.

    For an investigation of the economic impacts of US supply chain security see generally Carluer, Global Logistic Chain Security: Economic Impacts of the US 100% Container Scanning Law, 2008.

  92. 92.

    A list of the countries that have expressed such an intention is available at the WCO website: http://www.wcoomd.org/files/1.%20Public%20files/PDFandDocuments/Enforcement/FOS_bil_04.pdf.

  93. 93.

    Concerning the topic of coherence, see Art. II:5 of the WTO Agreement and the Ministerial Declaration on the Contribution of the World Trade Organization to Achieving Greater Coherence in Global Economic Policymaking, available at: http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/32-dchor_e.htm. The WTO has stated that the concept of “coherence” in the latter document extends beyond co-operation with the IMF and World Bank to embrace co-operation with other international organizations.

  94. 94.

    See WCO, Terms of Reference for the Permanent Technical Committee, para. 5, Terms of Reference for WCO Working Bodies, August 2010.

  95. 95.

    See the comments of Clarke, Report of the Capacity Building Committee, Document No. HC0008E1a, 22nd November, 2010, p. 10, para. 74 referring to postal, telecommunications, tourism institutions, UNICEF, UNCTAD, WTO, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, UNODC and more as having links with customs.

  96. 96.

    Doha Work Programme: Decision adopted by the WTO General Council on 1st August, 2004, WT/L/579, 2nd August, 2004, expressly states that the work of the WCO in this area is to be taken into account.

  97. 97.

    Concerning the framework of WTO negotiations on trade facilitation see Doha Work Programme, Annex D Modalities for Negotiations on Trade Facilitation, WT/L/579, 2nd August, 2004.

  98. 98.

    See Lux/Malone, A Place for Customs in the WTO: A Practical Look at the Doha Facilitation Negotiations, Global Trade and Customs Journal 1 (2006) 1, pp. 39 et seq. (39, 42–43, 47), concerning the role of the RKC. The authors point out that the advantage of such an agreement would be that it is legally binding and enforceable under WTO rules.

  99. 99.

    A list of co-operations with UN agencies can be viewed at: http://www.wcoomd.org/home_pfoverviewboxes_international_cooperation_pfunagencies.htm.

  100. 100.

    See the comments of Clarke, Report of the Capacity Building Committee, Document No. HC0008E1a, 22nd November 2010, p. 9, para. 65 and p. 10, para. 74, underlining the important role of customs in the realization of the UN Millenium Goals and pointing out room for greater collaboration.

  101. 101.

    E.g., the International Maritime Organization and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO): see WCO News, No. 53, June 2007, pp. 31–32, available at: http://wcoomdpublications.org/downloadable/download/sample/sample_id/17/.

  102. 102.

    See Engelschalk/Le, Two Decades of World Bank Lending for Customs Reform: Trends in Project Design, Project Implementation and Lessons Learned, in: de Wulf/Sokol (eds.), Customs Modernization Handbook, 2005, pp. 128 et seq., available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEXPCOMNET/Resources/Customs_Modernization_Handbook.pdf.

  103. 103.

    The webpage of the Group is available at: http://go.worldbank.org/8R9I8R6KJ0.

  104. 104.

    See e.g., WCO Press Release, World Bank and WCO agree to launch major Customs capacity building initiative, 18th October, 2010, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/press/?v=1&lid=1&cid=7&id=234.

  105. 105.

    See Introduction to the WCO’s PICARD Professional Standards, available at: http://incu.org/PICARD_standards.html.

  106. 106.

    The World Customs Journal and information on the annual PICARD conference is available at: http://www.incu.org.

  107. 107.

    See WCO SAFE Framework of Standards, 2007, p. 37, para. 5.2. Referring to the security requirements and standards set by e.g. the International Maritime Organization (IMO), UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), and International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

  108. 108.

    See generally, WCO News, No. 54, October 2007, p. 46, available at: http://wcoomdpublications.org/downloadable/download/sample/sample_id/18/.

  109. 109.

    The group consists of the WCO, the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) and the International Trademark Association (INTA). See website at: http://www.ccapcongress.net/steering%20group.htm.

  110. 110.

    See Asakura, World History of the Customs and Tariffs, 2002, p. 11.

  111. 111.

    See de Wulf, Strategy for Customs Modernization, in: de Wulf/Sokol (eds.), Customs Modernization Handbook, 2005, p. 3, available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEXPCOMNET/Resources/Customs_Modernization_Handbook.pdf.

  112. 112.

    For example, the INCO terms governing the seller’s obligations with regard to the delivery of the goods are a major part of any international sales contract. The data transmission requirements of the United States also require consideration by the contractual parties.

  113. 113.

    See WCO, Customs in the 21st Century, Enhancing Growth and Development through Trade Facilitation and Border Security, June 2008, Annex II to Doc. No. SC0090 E1a, p. 2, para. 1 (referring to the demands for “effective security and control of international supply chains” and “greater facilitation of trade” as “contradictory”).

  114. 114.

    Speech by Kunio Mikuriya, Secretary General, WCO, 26th January, 2011, available at: http://www.wcoomd.org/speeches/default.aspx?lid=1&id=250.

  115. 115.

    The World Customs Journal published by the International Network of Customs Universities under the auspices of the World Customs Organization: www.incu.org. The Department of Customs and Excise at the University of Münster under the directorship of Prof. Dr. Hans-Michael Wolffgang, also runs the Master of Customs Administration (MCA), a customs-specific postgraduate course: http://www.uni-muenster-mca.de.

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  1. Rechtswiss. Fakultät, Universität Münster, Universitätsstr. 14-16, 48143, Münster, Germany

    Hans-Michael Wolffgang

  2. Dpt. of Customs and Excise, Rechtswiss. Fakultät, Universitätsstr, 14-16, 48143, Münster, Germany

    Christopher Dallimore

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  1. Hans-Michael Wolffgang
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Correspondence to Hans-Michael Wolffgang .

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  1. European Law, European and, University of Passau Chair for Constitutional and Administrat, Passau, Germany

    Christoph Herrmann

  2. Department of European Law, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

    Jörg Philipp Terhechte

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Wolffgang, HM., Dallimore, C. (2012). The World Customs Organization and its Role in the System of World Trade: An Overview. In: Herrmann, C., Terhechte, J. (eds) European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2012. European Yearbook of International Economic Law, vol 3. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-23309-8_19

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