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A Comparative Law

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Armed Forces in Law Enforcement Operations? - The German and European Perspective

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Abstract

It is indisputable that the abstract missions of the armed forces and the police differ already as a basic principle. This principle applies not only to Germany but also to the whole European Community. This difference is a product of traditions, history, sociology and geography.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Bode, “Militärische und zivile Verteidigung”, in Deutsche Verwaltungsgeschichte, ed by Jeserich, Pohl, von Unruh, vol. 5, Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, p. 518–541 (527).

  2. 2.

    Uwe Volker Wentz “Die Entwicklung des Polizeibegriffs vom Mittelalter bis zum Nationalsozialismus” “Anwaltsblatt: Nachrichten für die Mitglieder des Deutschen Anwaltsvereins e”.V., 38 (1988) 5, p. 264–270.

  3. 3.

    Ernst Rudolf Huber, “Dokumente zur Deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte”, Corpus Juris Confoederationis Germanicae, vol. 2, p. 1 et seq.

  4. 4.

    General Karl Gustav von Griesheim.

  5. 5.

    Tobias Linke, “Innere Sicherheit durch die Bundeswehr?” AöR 129 (2004) p. 500.

  6. 6.

    Adolf Arndt, “Das Staatsrecht des Deutschen Reiches”, 1901, p. 479 et seq.

  7. 7.

    Even before the war, soldiers were deployed in a bloodless conflict with striking mineworkers in 1912.

  8. 8.

    The “Kreuzbergurteil” of June 14th 1882 decided that the police was not competent to safeguard aesthetic interests, thus limiting the responsibilities of the police forces and rendering the underlying police act void.

  9. 9.

    These uprisings are also known as the “Spartakusaufstand”.

  10. 10.

    Although the year 1935 is often referred to as being the year of foundation of the Wehrmacht, laws on the establishment of a preliminary Reichswehr from April 1919 as well as the constitution of the German Reich from August 11th 1919 use the term Wehrmacht to describe armed forces. This designation might however be due to common parlance of that time, relating to the general notion of armed forces.

  11. 11.

    Martinez Soria, “Polizeiliche Verwendungen der Streitkräfte” DVBl (2004): p. 599.

  12. 12.

    E.g. the decision of the Federal Constitutional Court of February 15th 2006 – 1 BvR 357/05; NJW 2006 (11) p. 751.

  13. 13.

    E.g. Manfred Baldus, in: Das Bonner Grundgesetz, ed. by Mangoldt/Klein/Starck, vol. 3, 4th Edition, Article 87a margin no. 1.

  14. 14.

    Bodo Pieroth in “Grundgesetzkommentar” Hans D. Jarras, Bodo Pieroth (Eds), 8. Edition, Munich 2006, Article 87a, margin no. 4.

  15. 15.

    Under the terms of Article 87b of the German Basic Law.

  16. 16.

    Under the terms of Artt. 96 II and IV of the German Basic Law.

  17. 17.

    Under the terms of Article 140 of the German Basic Law in conjunction with Article 141 of the Weimar Imperial Constitution.

  18. 18.

    Decision of the Federal Constitutional Court of July 12th 1994 – 2 BvE 3/92, 5/93, 7/93, 8/93, BVerfGE 90, 286 (p. 356 et seq.), mentioning extended interpretation, analogical application on unregulated cases and unwritten authority due to the principle “Kraft Natur der Sache”.

  19. 19.

    Günter Dürig, in: Maunz/Dürig, Article 87a margin no. 32.

  20. 20.

    Manfred Baldus, in: H. von Mangoldt/F. Klein/C. Starck, (eds) Article 87a, margin no. 32 et seq.

  21. 21.

    Klaus Stern, vol. 2, p. 46.

  22. 22.

    A valuable overview by Tobias Linke, “Innere Sicherheit durch die Bundeswehr?” AöR 129 (2004), p. 489–541 (493).

  23. 23.

    Both translations of “Einsatz” and “schlichte Verwendung” by the author.

  24. 24.

    According to this definition, examples for a “Einsatz” are measures taken according to Chapter VII of the UN Charta, military operations to safeguard German citizens abroad, and military operations supporting police searches within the national territory. No “Einsatz” in this sense are assignments of the armed forces for representative purposes such as guards of honour and charitable tasks e.g. concerning military cemeteries, cf. Bodo Pieroth in “Grundgesetzkommentar” Hans D. Jarras, Bodo Pieroth (Eds), 8. Edition, Munich 2006, Article 87a, margin no. 7, 8.

  25. 25.

    This historic approach was fallen back upon during discussions concerning a statement of the former Minister of Defence Peter Struck to defend Germany also at the Hindukush.

  26. 26.

    Pieroth, in: Hans Jarass, Bodo Pieroth “Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland”, Article 87a, margin no. 9.

  27. 27.

    Due to the systematic relation to Article 87a IV of the basic law.

  28. 28.

    Cf. the decision of the Federal Constitution Court of June 21st 2005, BVerwG 2 WD 12.04, see http://www.bverwg.de/media/archive/3059.pdf, visited May 29th 2010.

  29. 29.

    Brenner/Hahn, JuS 2001, p. 732.

  30. 30.

    See decision of the Federal Constitutional Court BVerfGE 90, 286/388.

  31. 31.

    Florian Schröder “Das neue Parlamentsbeteiligungsgesetz”, in: NJW 2005, p. 1406–1411.

  32. 32.

    BVerfGE 90, 286, 381 ff; see also BVerfG, 2 be 5/99 of March 25th 1999 = BVerfGE 100, 266 ff; BVerfG BvQ 18/03 of March 25th 2003 = BVerfGE 108, 34 et seq.

  33. 33.

    See Federal Law Gazette I. p. 111.

  34. 34.

    th Law on the Amendment of the Basic Law of June 24th 1968, see Federal Law Gazette I. p. 709.

  35. 35.

    See BVerfGE 90, 286 (382 et seq.).

  36. 36.

    During a military airshow in Ramstein, Germany, two participating Aermacchi MB-339 FD crashed during a mid air collision. In the aftermath of this event, 70 people, most of them civil spectators died while 450 were injured.

  37. 37.

    passengers were killed and 120 injured during the event of a train accident in Eschede, Germany.

  38. 38.

    Bodo Pieroth in “Grundgesetzkommentar” Hans D. Jarras, Bodo Pieroth (Eds), 8. Edition, Munich 2006, Article 87a, margin no. 12.

  39. 39.

    This was exemplarily conducted during police operations guarding Castor Transports within Germany.

  40. 40.

    Previous Defence Policy Guidelines date from 1992, prior to which two versions had been published in 1972 and 1979.

  41. 41.

    Defence Policy Guidelines for a Changed Security Environment, Defence Policy Guidelines, p. 3, I. 1.

  42. 42.

    “Traditional national defence can no longer primarily determine the structures and capabilities of the Bundeswehr, for there is no apparent conventional threat to German territory at present and in the foreseeable future”, Federal Minister of Defence, Dr. Peter Struck during the Federal Press Conference presenting the Defence Policy Guidelines on May 21st 2003 in Berlin.

  43. 43.

    Defence Policy Guidelines, Part II (Key Statements), 12, p. 4. http://www.bmvg.de/fileserving/PortalFiles/C1256F1200608B1B/W268AHEH510INFOEN/VPR_en.pdf?yw_repository=youatweb, visited May 27th 2010.

  44. 44.

    See the report of the Commission “Gemeinsame Sicherheit und Zukunft der Bundeswehr”, May 23rd 2000, p. 47.

  45. 45.

    White Paper on the Security of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Situation of the Bundeswehr, part 2, 3.1, see: http://www.bmvg.de/fileserving/PortalFiles/C1256EF40036B05B/W26UWAMT995INFODE/W%202006%20eng%20DS.pdf, visited May 27th 2010.

  46. 46.

    See measures enumerated in Chapter 2 and 3 of the “Gesetz über die Anwendung unmittelbaren Zwangs und die Ausübung besonderer Befugnisse durch Soldaten der Bundeswehr und verbündeter Streitkräfte sowie zivile Wachpersonen” of August 12th 1965, subsequently amended.

  47. 47.

    Wilhelm Knelangen and Jan C. Irlenkaeuser “Die Debatte über den Einsatz der Bundeswehr im Inneren”, in Kieler Analysen zur Sicherheitspolitik, No. 12, March 2004, p. 4.

  48. 48.

    Gregor Kämper “Organisation und Aufgaben der Polizei in Deutschland: ein aktueller Überblick” Kriminalistik, 56 (2002) p. 102–111.

  49. 49.

    Götz, “Die Sorge für die öffentliche Sicherheit und Ordnung”, in Deutsche Verwaltungsgeschichte, ed. by Jeserich, Pohl, von Unruh, vol. 5, Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, p. 426–450 (441).

  50. 50.

    Since the official name of the Bundesgrenzschutz has recently been changed into Federal Police, the abbreviation “BGS” as used in this document is accordingly outdated.

  51. 51.

    The term “paramilitary” used in this context refers to state-controlled security forces only.

  52. 52.

    Bernd Walter “Der Bundesgrenzschutz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland – Sonderpolizei von Anfang an oder ursprünglicher Streitkräfteersatz?” ÖMZ 5/2005, p. 643 et seq.

  53. 53.

    Heesen/Hönle/Peilert, “Kommentar zum Bundesgrenzschutzgesetz, Verwaltungs-Vollstreckungsgesetz und Gesetz über den unmittelbaren Zwang”, § 1, p. 36, margin no. 3.

  54. 54.

    The term “public security” is regularly defined as the protection of the individual interests and objects of legal protection, the existence of the nation, its facilities as well as the legal order while “public order” refers to all unscripted rules and provisions, vital to an orderly community life.

  55. 55.

    For a thorough review concerning the various perceptions of dangers in the federal states and the Federation, see Franz-Ludwig Knemeyer, “Polizei- und Ordnungsrecht”, p. 59 et seq. margin no. 87.

  56. 56.

    Michael Winkeler “Von der Grenzpolizei zur multifunktionalen Polizei des Bundes?” p. 28 et seq.

  57. 57.

    BVerfGE 97, p. 198–228.

  58. 58.

    Paul Wilkinson “Terrorism versus Democracy. The Liberal State Response”, Second Edition, London 2006, p. 66.

  59. 59.

    An overview over various tasks of the Bundesgrenzschutz and the Federal Police outside the national territory and related legal discussions is given by Wiefelspütz, Dieter and Müllers, Martin H. W.; van Ooyen, Robert Chr. (eds), “Der Einsatz der Bundespolizei im Ausland”, Europäisierung und Internationalisierung der Polizei, p. 207 f.

  60. 60.

    The civilian aspects of Civilian Crisis Management, see http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/113996.pdf, visited May 27th 2010.

  61. 61.

    See “Presidency Conclusions - Santa Maria Da Feira European Council”, June 19th and 20th 2000; http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/de/ec/00200-r1.d0.htm, visited May 27th 2010.

  62. 62.

    This task group is referred to as the AG IPTF.

  63. 63.

    Officers of the Federal Police took part in missions like UNTAG, UNTAC, MINURSO, DANUBE, PROXIMA, EUPM, UNMIK and UNMIL.

  64. 64.

    See Blumenwitz in BayVBl 1994, p- 678 f for a closer examination of the issue.

  65. 65.

    Status quo as of January 25th 2006, supplied by the Ministry of Home Affairs comprising following missions: UNMIK (87), UNOMIG (3), UNMIL (2), EUPM (6), EUPAT (1), EU-AMIS (2), EU BAM Rafah (4), EU BAM (5).

  66. 66.

    According to Chapter 0625 of the Budget Act.

  67. 67.

    According to Chapter 0502 of the Budget Act.

  68. 68.

    According to Chapter 2302 of the Budget Act.

  69. 69.

    Following the provision § 123 BRRG.

  70. 70.

    For information concerning specific missions, refer to the statement of Under Secretary of State, Lutz Diwell, BT Drs. 15/5993 p. 8 et seq.

  71. 71.

    Some voices however point to problematic issues of a foreign deployment of the Federal Police on the basis of $ 8 I of the Law on the Federal Police, see Fischer-Lescano, AöR Bd. 128 (2003), p. 52. Since the Federal Constitutional Court itself cited the provision § 8 I of the Law on the Federal Police in its findings of BVerfGE 97, p. 198, it is understood, that no concern towards the constitutionality of the provision exists.

  72. 72.

    Final Report of the Subcommittee “Weiterentwicklung der Inneren Führung” concerning a briefing on the Special Report “Erfahrungen der Bundeswehr beim Auslandseinsatz im Kosovo unter Berücksichtigung der März-Unruhen 2004”, Ausschussdrucksache 15. WP No. 15(11)544 of June 15th 2005, p. 8

  73. 73.

    “Gesetz zur Neuregelung von Luftsicherheitsaufgaben”, enacted January 11th 2005, published in the Federal Law Gazette Part I Nr. 3, p. 78.

  74. 74.

    See the decision of the Federal Constitutional Court BVerfG 1 BvR 357/05 of February 15th 2006.

  75. 75.

    See sec. 1, para. 1, sub-para. a-c of the Federal Constitutional Law on Cooperation and Solidarity when Dispatching Units or Individuals Abroad.

  76. 76.

    The decision to review and improve existing structures was reached on March 31st 2003 by Chancellor Wolfgang Schüssler and Home Secretary Ernst Strasser.

  77. 77.

    Article 79 in particular.

  78. 78.

    Security Police Act, Federal Law Gazette BGBl. No. 566/1991, subsequently amended, see http://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/Bundesnormen/NOR30006187/NOR30006187.pdf, visited May 27th 2010.

  79. 79.

    § 19 of the Security Police Act, supra.

  80. 80.

    § 20 et seq. of the Security Police Act, supra.

  81. 81.

    Article 79, para. 2.

  82. 82.

    Pierre d´Argent, “Military Law in Belgium” in European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, p. 189.

  83. 83.

    The Law of May 20th 1994 defines the “Période de guerre” as an international armed conflict between a starting and ending date, being determined by a Royal Decree, deliberated within the council of ministers. Unless the armed forces are in a “période de guerre”, they are in a “période de paix”.

  84. 84.

    Observation missions are regularly executed abroad, supervising ceasefires or implementing agreements.

  85. 85.

    Protection missions are aiming at protecting persons abroad, guaranteeing personal safety and free movement.

  86. 86.

    Passive armed engagements or conflict prevention comprise missions performed to maintain public order or ceasefire agreements abroad without force of arms.

  87. 87.

    Active armed engagements are performed to impose ceasefire or control violence, in case of need however, also by use of force.

  88. 88.

    This interpretation leads however to the question of consent of the single member state, being a prerequisite for such a mission.

  89. 89.

    Pierre d’Argent, “Military Law in Belgium”, in European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, p. 189 et seq.

  90. 90.

    Speech of Denis Bergmans, “Police and Gendarmerie Reform in Belgium: from Force to Service”, held at the International Conference on Democratic Horizons in Security Sector: Turkey and the European Security Sector Governance Experience, Istanbul, February 3rd 2005.

  91. 91.

    See http://www.police.ac.be/menu_58.htm, visited May 27th 2010.

  92. 92.

    Plamen Pantev and Colonel Valeri Ratchev, “Civil-Military Relations in Bulgaria: Aspects, Factors, Problems”, Civil-Military Relations in South-East Europe, p. 31 ff.

  93. 93.

    Parliamentary control is mainly exercised by the National Assembly defining a National Security Concept, a Military Doctrine, the Defence and Armed Forces Act (DAFA) and other basic laws.

  94. 94.

    See No. 44 of the Military Doctrine of the Republic of Bulgaria, approved by the XXXVIII National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria on April 8th 1999.

  95. 95.

    Art. 84 Nr. 11 of the Bulgarian Constitution.

  96. 96.

    Abbrevation of Mиниcтepcтвo нa вътpeшнитe paбoти.

  97. 97.

    See http://www.mvr.bg/en/AboutUs/StructuralUnits/National+MoI+Services/Gendarmery/default.htm, visited May 27th 2010.

  98. 98.

    Chapter seven, part two, section I of the Ministry of the Interior Act of May 1st 2006, amend. Official Gazette, No. 30 of April 11th 2006.

  99. 99.

    See § 4 (1) of the Provisional and Final Provisions of the Ministry of Interior Act as amended by Official Gazette, No. 30 of April 11th 2006.

  100. 100.

    See http://www.kypros.org/Constitution/English/index.htm, visited May 27th 2010.

  101. 101.

    E.g. Article 129 (1), Appendix D, Part VIII of the Cypriot Constitution.

  102. 102.

    Article 130 (1), Appendix D, Part VIII of the Cypriot Constitution.

  103. 103.

    See the Police Law No. 73 (I) / 2004.

  104. 104.

    See the Czech Republic Security Strategy 2004, approved on June 9th 2004, Governmental Resolution No. 578, p.3.

  105. 105.

    See the Czech Republic Security Strategy 2004, p. 4, supra.

  106. 106.

    See Czech Republic Military Strategy 2004, p. 5.

  107. 107.

    According to the Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic, approved on December 15th 2004 by the Chief of General Staff, Lieutenant General Pavel Stefka.

  108. 108.

    Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic, p. 21, supra.

  109. 109.

    Air space defence of the Czech Republic is carried out within the NATO Integrated Extended Air Defence System since 1999.

  110. 110.

    Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic, p. 103, supra.

  111. 111.

    Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic, p. 105, supra.

  112. 112.

    Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic, p. 106 supra.

  113. 113.

    Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic, p. 20, 92 et seq., supra.

  114. 114.

    Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic, p. 95, supra.

  115. 115.

    Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic, p. 99, supra.

  116. 116.

    Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic, p. 99, supra.

  117. 117.

    According to official data provided by Interpol, see http://www.interpol.int/Public/Region/Europe/pjsystems/Czech.asp, visited May 27th 2010.

  118. 118.

    Police Act - Act 283/1991 Coll., amended January 1st 2006, see http://aplikace.mvcr.cz/archiv2008/dokument/2006/283_1991a.pdf, visited May 27th 2010.

  119. 119.

    See section 1 (2) of the introductory provisions of the Police Act.

  120. 120.

    See title 1 section 2 (1) – (4) of the Police Act.

  121. 121.

    Among others the Crime Prevention Strategy for the Years 2008–2011, see http://www.mvcr.cz/mvcren/file/crime-prevention-strategy-2008–2011-pdf.aspx or the National Action Plan to Combat Terrorism Update for 2007–2009, see http://aplikace.mvcr.cz/archiv2008/dokument/2008/nap_2007_en.pdf, visited May 27th 2010.

  122. 122.

    e.g. Monetary Fund Conference, NATO Summit, etc.

  123. 123.

    Statement of the International Police Co-operation Division, International Relations Department of the Czech Republic to the author.

  124. 124.

    Law no. 122 of February 27th 2001, in force since March 1st 2001.

  125. 125.

    Jorgen Albraek Jensen, “Military Law in Denmark”, in European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, p. 239 et seq.

  126. 126.

    As of 2005, it consists of some 56,000 volunteers, both men and women, and approx. 800 employees. The Danish Home Guard is subdivided into four branches, the Army-, Aviation-, Naval- and Company Home Guard, see http://www.hjv.dk/Eng, visited May 27th 2010.

  127. 127.

    The Danish Defence Agreement 2005–2009, see http://forsvaret.dk/FKO/eng/Defence+Agreement/, visited May 27th 2010.

  128. 128.

    Gert Nielsen “Bürgernahe Polizeiarbeit in Dänemark” Auf dem Weg zu einer europäischen Polizei, Rolf Moiré, Manfred Murck, Rainer Schulte (eds), Stuttgart 1992, pp. 209–213 (210).

  129. 129.

    The Constitution of the Republic of Estonia, see http://www.riigiteataja.ee/ert/act.jsp?id=633949, visited May 27th 2010.

  130. 130.

    § 1 (1) of the Peace-Time National Defence Act of June 12th 2002, RT I 2002, 57, 354, subsequently amended, see http://www.legaltext.ee/text/en/X90030.htm, visited May 27th 2010.

  131. 131.

    Unofficial translation of the National Military Strategy 2005 of the Republic of Estonia, Annex to the Government of the Republic, Regulation No. 10 of January 18th 2005 on the Implementation of the National Military Strategy, Chapter II, 13, see http://www.mod.gov.ee/static/sisu/files/2005-09-08_NMS_2005.rtf, visited February 6th 2006 and the National Security Concept of the Republic of Estonia (2004), see http://merln.ndu.edu/whitepapers/Estonia-2004.pdf, visited May 27th 2010.

  132. 132.

    § 11 of the Peace-Time National Defence Act, supra.

  133. 133.

    § 12 (3) of the Peace-Time National Defence Act, supra.

  134. 134.

    See National Military Strategy 2005 of the Republic of Estonia, Chapter III, 17.

  135. 135.

    See § 13 of the Peace-Time National Defence Act, supra.

  136. 136.

    For an overview of the various duties, see http://www.politsei.ee/en/organisatsioon/, visited May 27th 2010.

  137. 137.

    The Police Act of September 20th 1990, see http://www.riigiteataja.ee/ert/act.jsp?id?742489, visited August 11th 2006.

  138. 138.

    See the official website of the Estonian Security Police Board http://www.kapo.ee/eng, visited May 22nd 2010.

  139. 139.

    “Estonian Law Enforcement System”, see http://www.pol.ee/?id=8346, visited May 22nd 2010.

  140. 140.

    “Priorities of the Estonian Police for 2006”, see http://www.pol.ee/?id=8036, visited August 11th 2006.

  141. 141.

    See § 12 (3) 4) of the Peace-Time National Defence Act, supra, and Regulation no. 245 of September 26th 2003 “Procedure for the Participation of Defence Forces in Rescue Work and Community Placements”.

  142. 142.

    Emergency Situation Act of January 10th 1996, RT I 1996, 8, 164, subsequently amended, see http://www.legaltext.ee/text/en/X2003K2.htm, visited May 22nd 2010.

  143. 143.

    Emergency Preparedness Act of November 22nd 2000, RT I 2000, 95, 613, subsequently amended, see http://www.legaltext.ee/text/en/X40064K1.htm, visited May 22nd 2010.

  144. 144.

    Framework Agreement as of December 23rd 1998.

  145. 145.

    Mikko Harjulehto, “Finnland: Starker Wehrwille ermöglicht effiziente Verteidigungskräfte”, in Europäische Sicherheit, No. 1, 2006, p. 20.

  146. 146.

    “The Finnish Defence Forces – 85 Years”, http://www.mil.fi/english/pv85_2_ENG.pdf, visited May 22nd 2010.

  147. 147.

    Section 127 of the Finnish Constitution.

  148. 148.

    Act on Peace Support Operations, 514/1984.

  149. 149.

    Section 2 of the Act on the Defence Forces, 402/1974.

  150. 150.

    See “Government Resolution On Securing The Functions Vital To Society” of 2003, http://www.defmin.fi/files/168/2587_2047_Government_Resolution_On_Securing_The_Functions_Vital_To_Society_1_.pdf, visited May 22nd 2010 as well as “The Strategy for Securing the Functions Vital to Society 2006”, see http://www.defmin.fi/files/858/06_12_12_YETTS__in_english.pdf, visited May 22nd 2010.

  151. 151.

    Among others: EUFOR, KFOR, UNMIK, UNFICYP, UNMIL, UNTSO, UNMEE, ISAF, UNMOGIP.

  152. 152.

    The official translation of the organisations name “Rajavartiolaitos” was changed 2006 to “The Border Guard of Finland”.

  153. 153.

    Jean R. Tartter, Eric Solsten, Sandra W. Meditz (eds) “Finland: A Country Study”, 2nd Edition, Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1990.

  154. 154.

    See http://www.intermin.fi/rvl/home.nsf/pages/index_eng, visited May 22nd 2010.

  155. 155.

    See Act on Border Guard, 578/2005.

  156. 156.

    Section 1 of the Police Act, 493/1995.

  157. 157.

    Such as the National Crime Prevention Programme, adopted in 1999 and the Internal Security Programme, adopted in 2004.

  158. 158.

    Areas of responsibility of these units are enacted in the Act in Police Administration, 110/1992.

  159. 159.

    Act on Executive Assistance by the Defence Forces to the Police, 781/1980.

  160. 160.

    Section 2 of the Act on Executive Assistance by the Defence Forces to the Police, supra.

  161. 161.

    Act on Executive Assistance by the Defence Forces to the Police, supra.

  162. 162.

    See http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ema/operations_exterieures, visited May 22nd 2010.

  163. 163.

    Four principles forming the basis of the definition of defence in France as stated in Article 1 of the Order of January 7th 1959 relating to the general organisation of Defence in France.

  164. 164.

    Faupin, Alain, “Providing Security, the Division of Labour, Armed Forces, Gendarmerie, Police” DCAF Working Paper No. 156, p. 4.

  165. 165.

    See http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006540193 &cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071307, visited May 22nd 2010.

  166. 166.

    See http://www.gouvernement.fr/gouvernement/dispositions-relatives-a-la-gendarmerie-nationale, visited May 22nd 2010.

  167. 167.

    A very detailed description of the French Gendarmerie Nationale is given by Drusilla Wiffen and Martin Edmonds “La Gendarmerie Nationale. A Blueprint for the Future of Internal Security Provision in the West?”, Defense Analysis Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 139–151 (141).

  168. 168.

    http://www.garderepublicaine.com/, visited May 22nd 2010.

  169. 169.

    Hubert Haenel, René Pichon “Que sais-je? La Gendarmerie”, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris 1983, p. 29.

  170. 170.

    Most frequent requests are for the maintenance or restoration of order, according to Drusilla Wiffen and Martin Edmonds “La Gendarmerie Nationale. A Blueprint for the Future of Internal Security Provision in the West?”, Defense Analysis Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 139–151 (143).

  171. 171.

    Drusilla Wiffen and Martin Edmonds “La Gendarmerie Nationale. A Blueprint for the Future of Internal Security Provision in the West?”, Defense Analysis Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 139–151 (143).

  172. 172.

    Groupe d´Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale (GIGN) working closely together with the Groupe de Securité de la Présidence de la République (GSPR) and the Groupement de Securité et d´Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale (GSIGN) or the Escadron Parachutiste d´Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale (EPIGN).

  173. 173.

    Pelotons de Surveillance et d´Intervention de la Gendarmerie (PSIG).

  174. 174.

    Drusilla Wiffen and Martin Edmonds “La Gendarmerie Nationale. A Blueprint for the Future of Internal Security Provision in the West?”, Defense Analysis Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 139–151 (145).

  175. 175.

    Drusilla Wiffen and Martin Edmonds “La Gendarmerie Nationale. A Blueprint for the Future of Internal Security Provision in the West?”, Defense Analysis Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 139–151 (145).

  176. 176.

    Including the Gendarmerie Maritime, Gendarmerie de l´Air and Gendarmerie de l´Armament. Latter was constituted most recently and is charged with the safeguarding of weapons, ammunition, and explosives during manufacturing, transit and storage, see Drusilla Wiffen and Martin Edmonds “La Gendarmerie Nationale. A Blueprint for the Future of Internal Security Provision in the West?”, Defense Analysis Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 139–151 (145).

  177. 177.

    Alain Faupin, “Providing Security, the Division of Labour, Armed Forces, Gendarmerie, Police” DCAF Working Paper No. 156, p. 5.

  178. 178.

    See Articles 302 and 156 of the decree of May 20th 1903, completing Article 63 of the French Code of Criminal Procedure.

  179. 179.

    Drusilla Wiffen and Martin Edmonds “La Gendarmerie Nationale. A Blueprint for the Future of Internal Security Provision in the West?” Defense Analysis Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 139–151 (145).

  180. 180.

    In France, the term “police” does not only refer to the forces, but also to the general concept of policing, meaning the maintenance of law and order.

  181. 181.

    Its main concerns are large cities from 20,000 urbanites and up.

  182. 182.

    An overview over the key areas of these duties is given by the General Directorate of the National Police at http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_l_interieur/la_police_nationale/presentation-generale, visited May 22nd 2010.

  183. 183.

    Marcel Chourry “Zwei Aspekte der französischen Polizei” Auf dem Weg zu einer europäischen Polizei, Rolf Moiré, Manfred Murck, Rainer Schulte (eds), Stuttgart 1992, pp. 192–198 (193).

  184. 184.

    Corps de maîtrise et d´application.

  185. 185.

    Corps de commande et d´encadrement.

  186. 186.

    Corps de conception et de direction.

  187. 187.

    Article 45 of the Greek Constitution.

  188. 188.

    For a complete enumeration, please refer to the Greek Ministry of Defence, http://www.mod.mil.gr/Pages/MainAnalysisPage2.asp?HyperLinkID=2 and to the Hellenic National Defence General Staff at http://www.geetha.mil.gr/, visited May 22nd 2010.

  189. 189.

    Law 2292/1995 “Organisation and Operation of the Ministry of National Defence, Command and Control of the Armed Forces and Other Clauses”.

  190. 190.

    Hellenic Contingent in Albania (HCA, ca. 100 soldiers), Hellenic Contingent in Bosnia (HCB, ca. 160 soldiers), Hellenic Contingent in Kosovo (HCK, ca. 1,500 soldiers) and Hellenic Contingent in Afghanistan (ca. 160 soldiers).

  191. 191.

    Law 1481/1-10-1984, Government Gazette 152 A.

  192. 192.

    Article 2 e) of the Code of Police Ethics, Presidential Decree 254/2004

  193. 193.

    László Póti, Judit Takács and Elemír Necej (ed.), “The Case of the Schizophrenic Musterknabe: Hungary”, The Security Strategies of the Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia in the Context of the European Security Strategy, Vienna 2005, p. 20–32 (27).

  194. 194.

    State of war or immediate threat of an armed attack by a foreign power, as defined by the National Security Strategy.

  195. 195.

    Armed acts aimed to subvert the constitutional order or to take exclusive power, serious violent acts committed using arms or by armed individuals endangering the security of life and/or property of citizens on a large scale, disaster by the elements or industrial catastrophe as defined by the National Security Strategy.

  196. 196.

    Colonel Zoltán Szabó “Border Security Systems: The Hungarian Case Study”, DCAF Working Paper Series – No. 6, pp.4, 6.

  197. 197.

    Colonel Zoltán Szabó “Threats and Challenges in the field of Border Security – The Hungarian Experience”, http://pforum.isn.ethz.ch/docs/BDBBE049-558A-4F8E-9DE1F9EFC8A5A731.pdf, visited May 22nd 2010.

  198. 198.

    Additional laws and regulations determining tasks and competences of the Border Guards beside the Constitution are the Police Act (1994), Act of Contravention (1999), Disaster Management Act (1999), National Defence Act (1993) and Border Guard Service Regulation (2001).

  199. 199.

    See http://www.interpol.int/public/Region/Europe/pjsystems/Hungary.asp, visited May 22nd 2010.

  200. 200.

    Éva Keresztes Dimovné “Hungarian Police Reform”, p. 12, see http://se2.dcaf.ch/serviceengine/Files/DCAF/18911/ichaptersection_singledocument/386db5a9-b064-485b-902f-b260e350f658/en/ch.3.pdf, visited May 22nd 2010.

  201. 201.

    Éva Keresztes Dimovné “Hungarian Police Reform”, supra, p. 25.

  202. 202.

    Relevant provisions were the seventeen statutory rules on State and Public Safety of 1974, the Decree of the Council of Ministers on Police (39/1974 XI.1) and the twenty-two statutory rules on the Use of Firearms by Police of 1963.

  203. 203.

    Act XXXIV of 1994 on the Police.

  204. 204.

    The present White Paper on Defence dates from the year 2000.

  205. 205.

    See “Defence Forces´ Roles, Mission, and Vision”, Defence Forces Strategy Statement 2003–2005, p. 3, updated by the Defence Forces´ Strategy Statement 2005–2007.

  206. 206.

    Mission Statement as defined in the Defence Forces´ Strategy Statement 2003–2005, p. 3, supra, updated by the Defence Forces´ Strategy Statement 2005–2007.

  207. 207.

    Strategic Goal No. 4 as defined in the Defence Forces´ Strategy Statement 2003–2005, p. 16, supra, updated by the Defence Forces´ Strategy Statement 2005–2007.

  208. 208.

    Garda Síochána Act 2005, Subsection 7 (1).

  209. 209.

    An Garda Síochána Strategy Statement 2010 - 2012, see http://www.garda.ie/Documents/User/GardaStrategy2010_ENG.pdf, visited May 22nd 2010.

  210. 210.

    Thomas O´Reilly “Zur Geschichte der Polizeiarbeit in Irland”, Auf dem Weg zu einer europäischen Polizei, Rolf Moiré, Manfred Murck, Rainer Schulte (eds), Stuttgart 1992, pp. 214–219 (215, 219).

  211. 211.

    Members of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Customs Guard (“Guardia di Finanza”) are regularly referred to as Military Persons while the definition National Armed Forces refers to all military forces.

  212. 212.

    Jörg Luther, “Military Law in Italy”, in European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, p. 431.

  213. 213.

    According to the Law of November 14th 2000 “Rules for the Institution of the Professional Military Service” (No. 331/2000).

  214. 214.

    The discovery of various coup d´état plans is often referred to as having accelerated the democratisation process in the Italian military.

  215. 215.

    Jörg Luther, “Military Law in Italy”, in European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, p. 436 et seq.

  216. 216.

    Principles of Military Discipline“: The task of the army, navy, and air force is to secure, in compliance with the oath made and with the obedience due to the orders received, the defence of the Fatherland and to aid in the safeguarding of the free institutions and the wealth of the national community in cases of public calamity.”

  217. 217.

    Jörg Luther, “Military Law in Italy”, in: European Military Law Systems, p. 437 et seq.

  218. 218.

    Law No. 331 of November 14th 2000.

  219. 219.

    Jörg Luther, “Military Law in Italy”, in: European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, p. 439.

  220. 220.

    Jörg Luther, “Military Law in Italy”, in: European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, p. 440.

  221. 221.

    Derek Lutterbeck, “Between Police and Military. The New Security Agenda and the Rise of Gendarmeries”, supra, p. 48.

  222. 222.

    This naval capability implicated the Guardia di Finanza in various naval battles in the Mediterranean during WWII.

  223. 223.

    Prominent operations took place in the region of Sicily, Calabria, Naples, and within the context of border crossing control within the region of Friuli-Venezia-Giulia.

  224. 224.

    Jörg Luther “Military Law in Italy”, in European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, pp 438 et seqq.

  225. 225.

    See: National Armed Forces Law, Chapter I, Section 2 (2) and Chapter II, Section 6 (1) as amended May 3rd 2005.

  226. 226.

    See: State Defence Concept of the Republic of Latvia, 3. “Basic Strategic Principles of State Defence” and 4.1 “Tasks and development priorities of the NAF” as accepted by the Latvian Parliament on November 13th 2003.

  227. 227.

    http://www.mil.lv/, viewed May 22nd 2010.

  228. 228.

    See: National Armed Forces Law, Chapter IV, Section 17 (2) as amended May 3rd 2005.

  229. 229.

    Law on the Participation of the National Armed Forces of Lativa in International Operations of February 16th 1995, see http://www.am.gov.lv/en/security/basic/4535/ visited May 22nd 2010.

  230. 230.

    See: National Armed Forces Law, Chapter I Section 4.

  231. 231.

    Relevant legal basis for operations of the National Guard are the Constitution of the Republic of Latvia, the National Security Law, the National Armed Forces Law, the Military Service Law, as well as other laws and regulatory enactments and by-laws, see Section 4 of the Law on the National Guard.

  232. 232.

    See: Law on the National Guard of the Republic of Latvia, Section 2 as amended December 16th 2005.

  233. 233.

    See: “State Defence Concept of the Republic of Latvia”, 4.1 “Tasks and Development of the Ministry of Defence and the National Armed Forces” as accepted by the Latvian Parliament on November 13th 2003.

  234. 234.

    See: Section 3 of the Law on the National Guard of the Republic of Latvia as amended December 16th 2005.

  235. 235.

    See: http://www.mil.lv/, viewed May 22nd 2010.

  236. 236.

    Part III, Chapter IV, Section 15 of the Latvian Law on the Police as amended June 15th 2000.

  237. 237.

    The duties of the local government police are defined in Part III, Chapter IV, Section 19 of the Latvian Law on the Police as amended June 15th 2000.

  238. 238.

    Part III, Chapter IV, Sections 17 and 18 of the Latvian Law on the Police as amended June 15th 2000.

  239. 239.

    See http://www.vp.gov.lv/?sadala=143, visited May 22nd 2010.

  240. 240.

    Definition in the Latvian Law on the Police Chapter I, Section 1; see http://www.vp.gov.lv/doc_upl/law_on_police.htm, visited May 22nd 2010.

  241. 241.

    Chapter I, Section 3 of the Latvian Law on Police as amended June 15th 2000.

  242. 242.

    Part III, Chapter VIII, Section 38 of the Latvian Law on Police as amended June 15th 2000.

  243. 243.

    Latvian Law on the Police, Chapter IV, Sections 16–20 as amended June 15th 2000.

  244. 244.

    On November 27th 1997 the Saeima of the Republic of Latvia passed the Law on the Border Guard which was enacted on January 1st 1998.

  245. 245.

    Article 8.1 of the Law on the Border Guard.

  246. 246.

    Latvian Law on the Police, Chapter I, Section 7 as amended June 15th 2000.

  247. 247.

    Latvian Law on the Police, Chapter II, Section 11 as amended June 15th 2000.

  248. 248.

    See Section 3, Article 11.4 of the Law No. VIII-723 on the Organisation of the National Defence System and Military Service of May 5th 1998, subsequently amended.

  249. 249.

    Article 139 of the Constitution.

  250. 250.

    Article 84.14 of the Constitution.

  251. 251.

    Article 137 of the Constitution.

  252. 252.

    Article 142 of the Constitution.

  253. 253.

    Law No. VIII-723 on the Organisation of the National Defence System and Military Service, May 5th, 1998 as amended by January 14th 1999, No. VIII-1027, and July 7th 1999, No. VIII-1289, see http://www3.lrs.lt/cgi-bin/preps2?Condition1=90344&Condition2, visited May 22nd, 2010.

  254. 254.

    Article 12 of the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on the Organisation of the National Defence System and Military Service, No. VIII-723 as of January 14th 1999.

  255. 255.

    Guidelines of the Lithuanian Minister of National Defence 2006–2011.

  256. 256.

    See Articles 4, 5 and 18 et seq. of the Law on the Police, I-851 of December 11th 1990 and Article 5 of the Law on Police Activities as amended May 11th 2006.

  257. 257.

    See Article 13 of the Law on the Police.

  258. 258.

    See Article 14 of the Law on the Police.

  259. 259.

    See Article 15 et seq. of the Law on the Police.

  260. 260.

    See review of participation of Lithuanian Police Forces in crisis management operations, http://www.policija.lt/index.php?id=3329, visited May 22nd 2010.

  261. 261.

    Resolution No. 939 as of July 27th 2001 of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania.

  262. 262.

    Legal basis for the assignment of tasks is the Law on the State Border Guard Service, Chapter I Section II Article 5 et seq. as of October 10th 2000, No. VIII-1996.

  263. 263.

    See “Tasks and Functions of the SGBS”, http://www.pasienis.lt/index.php?1644483076, visited May 22nd 2010.

  264. 264.

    Chapter II of the Lithuanian Law on the Basics of National Security as amended May 26th 2005, No. X-226.

  265. 265.

    See Chapter I Section I Article 2, Section 2 Article 5 and Section III Article 12 of the Law on State Border Guard Service, as of October 10th 2000, No. VIII-1996.

  266. 266.

    Article 18 (1) of the Law on the Organisation of the National Defence System and Military Service.

  267. 267.

    Article 18 (2) of the Law on the Organisation of the National Defence System and Military Service.

  268. 268.

    Article 18 (4) of the Law on the Organisation of the National Defence System and Military Service.

  269. 269.

    Article 18 (5) of the Law on the Organisation of the National Defence System and Military Service.

  270. 270.

    See Chapter VII, Article 96 of the Constitution.

  271. 271.

    See http://www.police.public.lu/PoliceGrandDucale/Historique/his_gie.html, visited May 22nd 2010.

  272. 272.

    “Loi du 31 mai 1999 – PGD – Mémorial A N° 87”, see http://www.police.public.lu/PoliceGrandDucale/mission_organigrame/TextesLoi/memorial_pdf.pdf, visited May 22nd 2010.

  273. 273.

    See Part II Title I Articles 3–4 of the Malta Armed Forces Act of September 22nd 1970.

  274. 274.

    Police Act Part II Title I 4. as amended by Act XVI of 2006.

  275. 275.

    Malta Armed Forces Act Part II Title I 4 (3) as amended by Act XV 2002.

  276. 276.

    Subsidiary Legislation 220.06 “Assignment of Powers to Armed Forces of Malta Order” of August 8th 1980, Legal Notice 66 of 1980, as amended by Legal Notices 53 of 1981, 44 of 1983 and 15 of 1984.

  277. 277.

    See http://www.afm.gov.mt/pgprimary.htm, visited May 22nd 2010.

  278. 278.

    See http://www.afm.gov.mt/pgsecondary.htm, visited May 22nd 2010.

  279. 279.

    Leonard F. M. Besselink “Military Law in the Netherlands” in European Military Law Systems, ed. by Georg Nolte, p. 556.

  280. 280.

    http://www.werkenbijdemarechaussee.nl/, visited May 22nd 2010.

  281. 281.

    Decision of September 7th 2000, 98/38 Maw, (2000) TAR, p. 144.

  282. 282.

    Standard-issue weapons of Dutch police officers are a 9 mm service pistol, a short baton, and pepper spray. Additional equipment such as handcuffs and bulletproof vests are increasingly distributed.

  283. 283.

    See Articles 58–60 of the Politiewet.

  284. 284.

    See Article 18 of the Wet rampen en zware ongevallen.

  285. 285.

    Delegated powers mentioned in the so-called A-list to the Emergency Situations Coordination Act refer to the Articles 9–23 of the Oorlogswet voor Nederland, the War Emergencies Act for the Netherlands.

  286. 286.

    Ministers, members of the judiciary as well as the Council of State, General Chamber of Audit, National Ombudsman and Permanent Advisory Bodies are not subjected to these restrictions in rights, see Chapter 4 of the Constitution.

  287. 287.

    The B-list to the Act comprises the powers referred to in Articles 9–53 of the Oorlogswet.

  288. 288.

    The Law on the Police was adopted by the Sejm and the Senate in April 1990.

  289. 289.

    Law of November 21st 1967 on the Universal Duty to Defend the Republic of Poland, consolidated text in the Journal of Laws of 2004 no. 241 item 2416, subsequently amended, also referred to as the 1967 Defence Act.

  290. 290.

    Judgement No. K 26/98 of the Polish Constitutional Court of March 7th 2000.

  291. 291.

    Unofficial translation by the author.

  292. 292.

    The Statute Concerning the Rules on the Deployment and Stationing of Polish Armed Forces Abroad dates of December 17th 1998, see Journal of Laws 1998, No. 162, item 1117.

  293. 293.

    See Article 2 (1) (a) of the Statute.

  294. 294.

    See Article 2 (1) (b) of the Statute.

  295. 295.

    See Article 2 (1) (c) of the Statute.

  296. 296.

    Among these operations are deployments in Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom), Kosovo (PMU/KFOR), Lebanon (PMC/UNIFIL), Golan Heights (PMC/UNDOF), Balkans (PMU/SFOR), and Albania (PMU/AFOR).

  297. 297.

    See Article 2 (2) (a) of the Statute.

  298. 298.

    See Article 2 (2) (b) of the Statute.

  299. 299.

    See Article 2 (2) (c) of the Statute.

  300. 300.

    Article 1 of the Law on the Police of April 6th 1990.

  301. 301.

    Law of October 12th 1990 on the Border Guards, Journal of Laws of 2005 no. 234 item1997, subsequently amended.

  302. 302.

    Law of August 24th 1991 on Fire Protection, Journal of Laws of 2002 no. 147 item 1229, subsequently amended.

  303. 303.

    Law of March 28th 2003 on the Rail Transport, Journal of Laws of 2003 no. 86 item 789, subsequently amended.

  304. 304.

    Law of August 24th 2001 on the Military Police, Journal of Laws of 2001 no. 123 item 1353, subsequently amended.

  305. 305.

    Law of September 6th 2001 on the Road Transport, Journal of Laws of 2004 no. 204 item 2088, subsequently amended.

  306. 306.

    See Chapter XI, Articles 228–234 of the Polish Constitution and the Law on Martial Law and the Powers of the Commander-in-Chief of August 29th 2002, Journal of the Laws of September 25th 2002 no. 156 item 1301, subsequently amended.

  307. 307.

    Referred to as the SND Statute of April 19th 2002, see Journal of Laws 2002, No. 62, item 558.

  308. 308.

    Referred to as the SE Statute of June 21st 2002, see Journal of Laws 2002, No. 113, item 985.

  309. 309.

    See Article 11 of the Law on a State of Emergency of June 1st 2002, Journals of Laws of July 20th 2002 no. 113 item 985, subsequently amended.

  310. 310.

    Order of the Council of Ministers of February 20th 2006 on the detailed rules of participation of the units of the armed forces of the Republic of Poland in preventing or removing the results of a natural disaster, Journal of Laws of March 10th 2003 no. 41 item 347.

  311. 311.

    See Article 18 of the Law on a State of Natural Disaster, Journal of Laws of May 22nd 2002 no. 62 item 558.

  312. 312.

    This local representative is referred to as the Voivode (Wojowoda), from one of Poland’s sixteen Voivodeships (Województwo), see Michal Kowalski, “Military Law in the Republic of Poland”, in European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, pp 656 et seqq.

  313. 313.

    This Statute on the Police dates of April 6th 1990, see Journal of Laws 1990, No. 30, item 179.

  314. 314.

    These tasks are exemplarily stated in section 8 (1)–(2) of the Regulation of the Council of Ministers Determining the Rules of the Use of the Police and the Armed Forces Units and Sub-Units in Case of a Threat to Security or Dangerous Violation of Public Order of March 5th 1991, see Journal of Laws 1991, No. 26, item 104.

  315. 315.

    This competence of the Prime Minister is based on Article 18a (1) of the Statute on the Police, supra.

  316. 316.

    Order of the Council of the Ministers of July 19th 2005, Journal of Laws of July 22nd no. 135 item 1134.

  317. 317.

    The period referred to as First Republic spans the timeframe of 1910–1926.

  318. 318.

    Such as INTERFER, UNTAET, MINURSO, EUFOR, KFOR.

  319. 319.

    Article 273.2 of the 1982 Constitution.

  320. 320.

    Regulations concerning a deployment of Portuguese Armed Forces during emergency situations are stipulated in Law 44/86 of September 30th 1986.

  321. 321.

    Article 275.6 of the Constitution.

  322. 322.

    Articles 1 and 18.1 of the Basic Civil Defence Law, Law 113/91 of August 29th 1991.

  323. 323.

    Article 1 of the Regulatory Decree 18/93 of June 28th 1993.

  324. 324.

    Opinion No. P001472001, dated July 2001 in response to questions raised by the Ministry of Defence concerning the sustainability and compliance of missions of this type with the legal framework currently in force.

  325. 325.

    Article 275.1 of the Constitution.

  326. 326.

    Article 273.2 of the Constitution.

  327. 327.

    Usually referred to as Guarda Nacional Republican.

  328. 328.

    See http://www.gnr.pt/ for further details concerning the National Republican Guard.

  329. 329.

    After the coup d’état of 1910 and the substitution of the constitutional monarchy by the republic, the Municipal Guard became altered into the new Republican National Guard by decree of May 3rd 1911.

  330. 330.

    Usually referred to as Guarda Fiscal.

  331. 331.

    See Article 9 of Decree-Law 231/93 of June 26th 1993.

  332. 332.

    Decree-Law 231/93 of June 26th 1993 as amended by Decree-Law 298/94 of November 24th 1994.

  333. 333.

    Abstract of Article 2 of Decree-Law 231/93 of June 26th 1993 as amended by Decree-Law 298/94 of November 24th 1994.

  334. 334.

    Title IX, Article 272, Section 1 of the Portuguese Constitution.

  335. 335.

    Title IX, Article 272, Section 2 of the Portuguese Constitution.

  336. 336.

    The Fiscal Guard was disestablished by Decree-Law 230/93 of June 26th 1993 and replaced by the Fiscal Brigade, a unit within the National Republican Guard.

  337. 337.

    Abstract of Article 2 of Law 5/99 of January 27th 1999.

  338. 338.

    See Article 1.2 of Law 5/99 of January 27th 1999, PSP Organisational and Procedural Law.

  339. 339.

    See Article 1 of Decree-Law 275-A/2000 of November 9th 2000.

  340. 340.

    Organisational Law approved by Decree-Law 252/2000 of October 16th 2000.

  341. 341.

    Organisational Law approved by Decree-Law 225/85 of July 4th 1985.

  342. 342.

    Law 140/99 of August 28th 1999.

  343. 343.

    Article 6 of the Internal Security Law, Law 20/87 of June 12th 1987 amended by Law 8/91 of April 1st 1991.

  344. 344.

    Article 2.1 of Law 5/99 of January 27th 1999, Law on the Organisation and Procedures of the Public Security Police.

  345. 345.

    See http://english.mapn.ro/milstrategy/natmilitobjectives.php, visited May 22nd 2010.

  346. 346.

    See http://english.mapn.ro/milstrategy/stratmissions.php, visited May 23rd 2010.

  347. 347.

    Visit http://www.jandarmeriaromana.ro/index.htm for more information on the Gendarmerie of Romania, visited May 23rd 2010.

  348. 348.

    Association of the European and Mediterranean Police Forces and Gendarmeries with Military Status, see http://www.fiep-asso.org/, visited May 23rd 2010.

  349. 349.

    See Art. 1 of the Emergency Ordinance No. 104 of June 27th 2001.

  350. 350.

    See Art. 1 of Law No. 218/2002.

  351. 351.

    See Law No. 508/2004.

  352. 352.

    See http://www.mosr.sk/, visited May 23rd 2010.

  353. 353.

    See the overview at http://www.mosr.sk/index.php?page=64, visited May 23rd 2010.

  354. 354.

    Act No. 171/1993 Coll. of July 6th 1993 regarding the Police Force, see http://www.minv.sk/?ministry-of-interior, visited May 23rd 2010.

  355. 355.

    Chapter I Article 1.1 of the Act on the Police Force, supra.

  356. 356.

    Chapter I Article 2.1a-4 of the Act on the Police Force, supra.

  357. 357.

    Article II §68a 45. of Act No. 353/1997 Coll. of November 21st 1997.

  358. 358.

    Police Act of the Republic of Slovenia, Chapter II Article 3.

  359. 359.

    Police Act of the Republic of Slovenia, Chapter II Article 19.

  360. 360.

    TORS, Territorial Defence of the Republic Slovenia “Teritorialna obramba Republike Slovenije” formed in 1968 as a paramilitary organisation in the former Yugoslav Republic is deemed to be the predecessor of the current Slovenian Armed Forces.

  361. 361.

    Police Act of the Republic of Slovenia, Chapter II Article 21 and 23 et seq.

  362. 362.

    Organic Act on National Defence 5/2005 of November 17th 2005.

  363. 363.

    Lorenzo Cotino Hueso, “Military Law in Spain”, in European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, S. 724 et seq.

  364. 364.

    Relevant provisions are stipulated in the Royal Decree 1125/1976, Organic Law 4/1981 on the Declaration of Emergency and Law 2/1985 of January 21st 1985 on Civil Protection.

  365. 365.

    Lorenzo Cotino Hueso, “Military Law in Spain”, in European Military Law Systems, ed. by G. Nolte, p. 724 et seq.

  366. 366.

    According to Section 97 of the Spanish Constitution and Section 5 of the aforementioned Organic Act on National Defence.

  367. 367.

    See Section 6 of the Organic Act on National Defence 5/2005, supra.

  368. 368.

    See Section 7 of the Organic Act on National Defence 5/2005, supra.

  369. 369.

    See Section 8 of the Organic Act on National Defence 5/2005, supra.

  370. 370.

    Organic Act on National Defence 5/2005 of November 17th 2005, supra.

  371. 371.

    Organic Act on Security Forces 2/1986 of March 13th 1986, BOE 63/1986 of March 14th 1986, p. 9604.

  372. 372.

    Sections 23–25 of the Organic Act on National Defence 5/2005, supra.

  373. 373.

    Article 2.1. B) a-g of the Organic Act on Security Forces 2/1986 of March 13th, supra.

  374. 374.

    See http://www.guardiacivil.org/index.jsp, visited May 23rd 2010.

  375. 375.

    Actually “Cuerpo Nacional de Policía”.

  376. 376.

    E.g. the legislation of the Policia Local of Mazzaron, see http://www.mazarron.es/policialocal/ingles/legislacion.asp, visited May 23rd 2010.

  377. 377.

    Literally: Boys from the squad.

  378. 378.

    http://www.gencat.net/mossos/cme/historiapdf/historia.pdf, visited May 23rd 2010.

  379. 379.

    See the Law on the Mossos d'Esquadra 10/1994 of June 11th 1994, see http://www.gencat.cat/interior/leg/l10_1994.htm, for an overview of the functions see http://www.gencat.cat/mossos/cme/organitzacio/Funcions.html, visited May 23rd 2010.

  380. 380.

    e.g. the so called Beltzak in the field of riot control, the Berrozi or the AVCS, see official website http://www.ertzaintza.net/ingles/html/home.html, visited May 23rd 2010.

  381. 381.

    Mary O´Rawe; Linda Moore “Human Rights On Duty – Principles for better policing: International lessons or Northern Ireland”, p. 164.

  382. 382.

    Mary O´Rawe; Linda Moore “Human Rights On Duty – Principles for better policing: International lessons or Northern Ireland”, p. 199.

  383. 383.

    See http://www.lehendakaritza.ejgv.euskadi.net/r482312/de/contenidos/informacion/estatuto_guernica/de_455/adjuntos/estatu_a.pdf, visited May 23rd 2010.

  384. 384.

    Lorenzo Cotino Hueso “Military Law in Spain”, European Military Law Systems, ed. by Georg Nolte, Berlin 2003, p. 731.

  385. 385.

    See Section 15, para. 3 of the Organic Act on National Defence 5/2005, supra.

  386. 386.

    See Section 15, para. 4 of the Organic Act on National Defence 5/2005, supra.

  387. 387.

    See Section 16 et seq. of the Organic Act on National Defence 5/2005, supra.

  388. 388.

    See Chapter 10, Section 9, first paragraph of the Swedish Constitution.

  389. 389.

    Ordinance on Peacetime Deployment of the Armed Forces, 1982:756.

  390. 390.

    Ordinance on Logistic and Material Support of the Armed Forces to Civil Authorities, 2002:375.

  391. 391.

    As declared at the Council of Defence Ministers in Brussels on November 22nd 2004, Sweden, Finland, Norway and Estonia will establish the Nordic Battle Group based on the EU Battle Group Concept, “Annual Exchange of Information on Defence Planning 2006” 1.2.2 (p. 8), valid as of March 15th 2006.

  392. 392.

    See the Instructions to the Swedish Armed Forces, 2000:555.

  393. 393.

    At present, Sweden has military forces deployed in Liberia, DR Congo, Bosnia, Afghanistan and Kosovo.

  394. 394.

    Swedish Military-Strategic Doctrine 2002 Edition (M7740-774002) of June 31st 2002 which is still valid today, see the “Annual Exchange of Information on Defence Planning 2006” 1.1.4 (p. 6), valid as of March 15th 2006.

  395. 395.

    See Committee Report SOU 2003:32 and the subsequent Government Bill, 2005/06:111.

  396. 396.

    Current operations with military personnel are led by the UN (UNMIL, approx. 230 personnel), EU (ALTHEA, approx. 70 personnel) and NATO (KFOR, approx. 415 personnel and ISAF, approx. 220 personnel).

  397. 397.

    See “The Facts 2005 – Swedish Armed Forces”, p. 6.

  398. 398.

    Swedish Military Strategic Doctrine 2002 Edition (M7740-774002) as of June 31st 2002, Chapter 4, p. 46.

  399. 399.

    Swedish Military Strategic Doctrine 2002 Edition (M7740-774002) as of June 31st 2002, Chapter 4, p. 50 et seq.

  400. 400.

    Swedish Military Strategic Doctrine 2002 Edition (M7740-774002) as of June 31st 2002, Chapter 4, p. 50.

  401. 401.

    See “The Facts 2005 – Swedish Armed Forces”, p. 28 et seq.

  402. 402.

    See http://hemvarnet.se/?action=visaartikel&artikelid=71, visited May 23rd 2010.

  403. 403.

    Swedish Military Strategic Doctrine 2002 Edition (M7740-774002) as of June 31st 2002, Chapter 4, p. 51.

  404. 404.

    Sweden's Defence Policy as defined in the “Annual Exchange of Information on Defence Planning 2006” 1.1.3 (p. 5), valid as of March 15th 2006.

  405. 405.

    Examples of such voluntary and independent organisations are the Swedish Sport Shooting Association, the Swedish Working Dog Club, the Federation of Voluntary Rifle Clubs or the Swedish Red Cross among others.

  406. 406.

    As of 2006, the Swedish Home Guard is organised into 66 battalions nationwide.

  407. 407.

    In 2001, 122 Rapid Response Platoons and 27 Rapid Response Company Commands were maintained.

  408. 408.

    See http://www.polis.se/, visited May 23rd 2010.

  409. 409.

    Basic provisions on the duties of the National Security Services are contained in the ordinance 1989:773 and 2002:1050.

  410. 410.

    Total Defence Duties Act, 1994:1809.

  411. 411.

    See the Swedish Police Act (1984:387), http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/862/file/561e3c4cd83d3072c0eec221b990.pdf, visited May 23rd 2010.

  412. 412.

    Section 2 2.2 of the Police Act, supra.

  413. 413.

    Section 2 2.2 of the Police Act, supra.

  414. 414.

    The Swedish Coast Guard commenced operations with two mounted watchmen, see http://www.tullverket.se/en/startpage/aboutswedishcustoms/swedishcustomsthenandnow.4.3d12a7ea116fc2899518000172.html, visited May 23rd 2010.

  415. 415.

    See “Arbetsordning för Kustbevakningen” of January 29th 2007, entered into force February 1st 2007, http://www.kustbevakningen.se/Documents/Arbetsordning/Arbetsordning.pdf, visited May 23rd 2010.

  416. 416.

    The Act (2006:343) was adopted in May 2006 and came into force on July 1st 2006.

  417. 417.

    Act on Punishment of Terrorist Crimes (2003:148).

  418. 418.

    Prop. 2005/06:133, FöU9.

  419. 419.

    See http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/en/Organisation/Centres/Swedish-Armed-Forces-International-Centre/Cooperation/, visited May 23rd 2010.

  420. 420.

    Doron Zimmermann “Between Minimum Force and Maximum Violence: Combating Political Violence Movements with Third-Force Options”, The Quarterly Journal, Spring 2005, p. 43–60 (43).

  421. 421.

    Drusilla Wiffen, Martin Edmonds “La Gendarmerie Nationale. A Blueprint for the Future of Internal Security Provision in the West?” Defense Analysis Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 139–151 (140).

  422. 422.

    Peter Rowe, “Military Law in the United Kingdom”, European Military Law Systems, ed. by Georg Nolte, p. 833.

  423. 423.

    See Chandler v. Director of Public Prosecutions (1964) AC 736, note the comments of Lord Reid.

  424. 424.

    Though this procedure has been criticised by the Foreign Affairs Committee on occasion of the Kosovo crisis, a proposal for adjustment was rejected by the government; Fourth Report from the Foreign Affairs Committee, Session 1999–2000, Kosovo, Response of the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, August 2000, Cm 4825, p. 10.

  425. 425.

    Steven C. Greer, “Military Intervention in Civil Disturbances: The Legal Basis Reconsidered”, Public Law, (1983), pp. 573, 587

  426. 426.

    Wording as used in the preamble of the Army Annual Act 1913.

  427. 427.

    See the Defence White Paper “Delivering Security in a Changing World” of December 2003, Cm 6041-1, p.4, http://www.mod.uk/linked_files/publications/whitepaper2003/volume1.pdf, visited May 23rd 2010.

  428. 428.

    Whereas the Strategic Defence Review laid out a main Defence Mission, eight subordinate Defence Missions and 28 Military Tasks, the Defence White Paper 2003 adopted only a single Defence Aim and 18 Military Tasks, cf. “The Strategic Defence Review: A New Chapter”, Cm 5566 Vol. 1 of July 2002.

  429. 429.

    See the Supporting Essays of the Defence White Paper, http://www.mod.uk/linked_files/publications/whitepaper2003/volume2.pdf, visited May 23rd 2010.

  430. 430.

    Emergency Law Database Northern Ireland, see http://www.law.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofLaw/Research/HumanRightsCentre/Resources/StatesofEmergencyDatabase/NorthernIreland/, visited May 23rd 2010.

  431. 431.

    In these Diplock Courts, a single judge under slightly relaxed rules of evidence tried serious terrorist offences until 1975.

  432. 432.

    This legislation has been enacted in 1974, amended in 1976 and 1984 and re-enacted in 1989.

  433. 433.

    Alan Goldsmith “Polizei, Bürger und Europa – Aus der Sicht des Vereinigten Königreichs” Auf dem Weg zu einer europäischen Poizei, Rolf Moiré, Manfred Murck, Rainer Schulte (eds), Stuttgart 1992, pp. 199–208 (199).

  434. 434.

    Peter Rowe, “Military Law in the United Kingdom” European Military Law Systems ed. by Georg Nolte, p. 839

  435. 435.

    Reference to her Majesty is to be considered as a reference to the Government of the day, acting on the basis of the royal prerogative, supra.

  436. 436.

    Tony Bunyan, “The Origins of Emergency Powers Acts in the UK”, The Political Police in Britain, Quartet, 1977, p. 51–56.

  437. 437.

    The Defence of the Realm Act passed the House of Commons without debate on August 8th 1914.

  438. 438.

    Tony Bunyan, “The Origins of Emergency Powers Acts in the UK”, The Political Police in Britain, Quartet, 1977, p. 51–56.

  439. 439.

    Tony Bunyan, “The Origins of Emergency Powers Acts in the UK”, The Political Police in Britain, Quartet, 1977, p. 51–56.

  440. 440.

    Ronald Kidd, “British Liberty in Danger: An Introduction to the Study of Civil Rights”, London 1940, p. 50 et seq.

  441. 441.

    “Civil Contingencies Bill: Emergencies Powers – ancient arbitrary powers preserved”, see http://www.statewatch.org/news/2003/jun/23acivil.htm, visited May 23rd 2010.

  442. 442.

    Civil Contingencies Act 2004, http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2004/20040036.htm, visited May 23rd 2010.

  443. 443.

    E.g. “Explanatory Memorandum”, http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/en2004/2004en36.htm, “Civil Contingencies Act 2004: A Short Guide (revised)”, http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/media/132428/15mayshortguide.pdf, Lorna Shore, “Revising Response”, http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/media/310791/lshore-article.pdf, “Explanatory Notes to CCA 2004”, http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2004/en/ukpgaen_20040036_en_1, all visited May 23rd 2010.

  444. 444.

    As laid out in Standing Strategic Tasks, MT 2.1 in the Supporting Essays of the Defence White Paper, 2003, p. 4, supra.

  445. 445.

    See the joint doctrine publication “Operations in the UK: The Defence Contribution to Resilience”, see http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/4F984DE3-6CA0-42D9-8BFF-FC90A07C04BF/0/jdp02_2nd_edition.pdf, visited May 24th 2010.

  446. 446.

    “The Role of the Ministry of Defence and the Armed Forces” The Government's Expenditure Plans 2003-04 to 2005-06, Ministry of Defence, 2001, p. 6, see http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/9B36F833-E063-4569-B03B-0F4D226C5375/0/gep_0304to0506.pdf, see also “Defence Plan 2010 – 2014”, http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/AB3A3278-2820-40EF-AA15-9BDA7D0A531 8/0/Defence_Plan_2010_2014.pdf, visited May 24th 2010.

  447. 447.

    Dutch Minister of Defence Henk Kamp after the Signature of Declaration of Intent for a European Gendarmerie Force, Noordwijk, Netherlands September 17th 2004, see Library of the House of Commons, Research Paper 06/32, June 8th 2006 “European Security and Defence Policy: Developments Since 2003”, p. 39, http://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons/lib/research/rp2006/rp06-032.pdf, visited May 24th 2010.

  448. 448.

    Bill Hayton, BBC news editor, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3665172.stm, visited May 24th 2010.

  449. 449.

    Chapter II, Article 4 of the Treaty establishing the European Gendarmerie Force, see http://www.eurogendfor.org/referencetexts/EGF%20Treaty%20english%20version.pdf, visited May 24th 2010.

  450. 450.

    Currently Colonel Jorge Esteves of the Portuguese GNR.

  451. 451.

    See the organisational chart of the EGF at http://www.eurogendfor.org/, visited May 24th 2010.

  452. 452.

    See http://www.eurogendfor.org/, visited May 24th 2010.

  453. 453.

    See http://www.eurogendfor.org/, visited May 24th 2010.

  454. 454.

    See http://www.eurogendfor.org/, visited May 24th 2010.

  455. 455.

    Enrique Esquivel Lalinde “The New European Gendarmerie Force”, Defence & Security, ARI No 48/2005 – 9/5/2005, p. 2.

  456. 456.

    See http://www.eurogendfor.org/referencetexts/EGF%20declaration%20of%20intent.pdf, visited May 24th 2010.

  457. 457.

    See http://www.eurogendfor.org/, visited May 24th 2010.

  458. 458.

    Report of the French and German Ministries of Defence on the Establishment of the European Corps, see E. Martin (ed.), Eurocorps und Europäische Einigung, Bonn, 1996, p. 547–592.

  459. 459.

    See Common Declaration of the WEU Council of Ministers in Madrid on November 14th 1995.

  460. 460.

    Souren G. Seraydarian, “Post-Conflict Security Arrangements” in After Intervention: Public Security Management in Post-Conflict Societies, Vienna, ed. by Anja H. Ebnöther and Philipp H. Fluri, August 2005, p. 53

  461. 461.

    Reports quote 20% military casualties thereof, see Larry L. Watts, “The Romanian Army in the December Revolution and Beyond” in Romania after Tyranny, ed. by Daniel N. Nelson, Boulder, Westview, 1992, p. 95–126.

  462. 462.

    Andrew Cottey, Tim Edmunds and Anthony Foster “Democratic Control of Armed Forces in Central and Eastern Europe: A Framework for Understanding Civil-Military Relations in Post-Communist Europe”, 1999, Nottingham, p. 3

  463. 463.

    Larry L. Watts, “Whose Professionalism?: Separating the Institutional Roles of the Military & Police” The Conflict Studies Research Centre, Surrey, England, 2001, p. 8.

  464. 464.

    Larry Diamond; Marc Plattner, (eds.) “The Global Resurgence of Democracy”, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1996.

  465. 465.

    Samuel Edward Finer “The Man on Horseback – The Role of the Military in Politics” New York 1962, p. 6.

  466. 466.

    So-called “police assistance operations” are common practice in countries like Italy, Northern Ireland, Austria or Switzerland.

  467. 467.

    Alice Hills, “The Inherent Limits of Military Forces on Policing Peace Operations”, International Peacekeeping, Vol. 8, No. 3, Autumn 2001, p. 81.

  468. 468.

    Andrew Cottey, Tim Edmunds and Anthony Foster “Democratic Control of Armed Forces in Central and Eastern Europe: A Framework for Understanding Civil-Military Relations in Post-Communist Europe”, 1999, Nottingham, p. 3.

  469. 469.

    Karl W. Haltiner, “Erfordern neue Militäraufgaben neue Militärstrukturen? Organisationssoziologische Betrachtungen zur Verpolizeilichung des Militärs”, in Krieg, Konflikt und Gesellschaft. Aktuelle interdisziplinäre Perpektiven, ed. by Sabine Collmer (Hamburg, 2003), pp. 159–186.

  470. 470.

    Maurice Davie, The Evolution of War, (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1929), p. 3, 229.

  471. 471.

    Christian Calliess “Die Staatsaufgabe der Äußeren Sicherheit im Wandel: Staatstheoretische Grundlagen und völkerrechtliche Konsequenzen”, Neue Sicherheit im Wandel – Neue Herausforderungen an eine alte Staatsaufgabe, Baden-Baden 2005, p. 19.

  472. 472.

    Kirchof/Isensee (Ed), Handbuch des Staatsrechts der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Bd. III, 2nd Edition, 1996, § 78, margin no. 3, 24.

  473. 473.

    Carl von Clausewitz “Principles of War”, III. 2. 1, ed. by Hans W. Gatzke.

  474. 474.

    Christian Meiser “Die außen- und sicherheitspolitischen Kompetenzen der EU nach der Verfassung für Europa”, Neue Sicherheit im Wandel – Neue Herausforderungen an eine alte Staatsaufgabe, ed. by Christian Calliess, Baden-Baden 2005, p. 125–143 (133 et seq.).

  475. 475.

    Christian Calliess “Die Staatsaufgabe der Äußeren Sicherheit im Wandel: Staatstheoretische Grundlagen und völkerrechtliche Konsequenzen”, Neue Sicherheit im Wandel – Neue Herausforderungen an eine alte Staatsaufgabe, Baden-Baden 2005, p. 15.

  476. 476.

    Carl von Clausewitz “On War” Book VI – Defence, Chapter I. 1, translated by J.J. Graham, London 1873.

  477. 477.

    Larry L. Watts “Whose Professionalism?” supra, p. 6.

  478. 478.

    August Pradetto “Neue Kriege” Handbuch Militär und Sozialwissenschaft ed. by Sven Bernhard Gareis, Paul Klein, Wiesbaden 2004, p. 192 et seq.

    Ministry of Defence, No. 520.

  479. 479.

    Sven Bernhard Gareis “Auslandseinsätze der Bundeswehr” Handbuch Militär und Sozialwissenschaft ed. by Sven Bernhard Gareis, Paul Klein, Wiesbaden 2004, p. 249 et seq.

  480. 480.

    Ministry of Defence, No. 520.

  481. 481.

    See the White Paper on Defence, Chapter 3.2, p. 56

  482. 482.

    According to the “Annual Report 2008: the state of drugs problem in Europe”, Afghanistan produces currently 8,200t of the global heroin output, http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_64227_EN_EMCDDA_AR08_en.pdf, visited May 24th 2010.

  483. 483.

    Christian Calliess “Die Staatsaufgabe der Äußeren Sicherheit im Wandel: Staatstheoretische Grundlagen und völkerrechtliche Konsequenzen”, Neue Sicherheit im Wandel – Neue Herausforderungen an eine alte Staatsaufgabe, Baden-Baden 2005, p. 13–32 (24).

  484. 484.

    Annette Bußmann “Äußeren Sicherheit und grenzüberschreitende staatliche Zusammenarbeit”, Neue Sicherheit im Wandel – Neue Herausforderungen an eine alte Staatsaufgabe, ed. by Christian Calliess, Baden-Baden 2005, p. 83–89 (84).

  485. 485.

    Larry L. Watts, “Whose Professionalism?: Separating the Institutional Roles of the Military & Police”, Conflict Studies Research Centre, Surrey, England, 2001, p. 3.

  486. 486.

    Harold Lasswell “The Garrison State and Specialists on violence”, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. XLVI (1941), pp 455–468.

  487. 487.

    Samuel P. Huntington, “The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations”, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1957, p. 11.

  488. 488.

    Amos Perlmutter; William M. LeoGrande, “The Party in Uniform: Toward a Theory of Civil-Military Relations in Communist Political Systems”, The American Political Science Review, Vol. 76, No. 4 (1982), p. 782.

  489. 489.

    Samuel P. Huntington, “The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations”, supra, p. 11–18.

  490. 490.

    Somewhat surprisingly, some authors deem it wise that this ideal of a de facto monopoly was never fully achieved, see Martin van Crefeld “Die Zukunft des Krieges”, Munich 1998, p. 281.

  491. 491.

    Christian Calliess, “Die Staatsaufgabe der Äußeren Sicherheit im Wandel: Staatstheoretische Grundlagen und völkerrechtliche Konsequenzen”, in: Äußere Sicherheit im Wandel – Neue Herausforderungen an eine alte Staatsaufgabe, Baden-Baden 2005, p. 13.

  492. 492.

    August Pradetto “Neue Kriege” Handbuch Militär und Sozialwissenschaft Sven Bernhard Gareis, Paul Klein (eds.), Wiesbaden 2004, p. 192 et seq.

    Ministry of Defence, No. 520.

  493. 493.

    Martin van Crefeld “Die Zukunft des Krieges”, Munich 1998, p. 282.

  494. 494.

    Martin van Creveld “Die Zukunft des Krieges” Munich 1998, p. 67 et seq.

  495. 495.

    Cathleen Kantner, Sammi Sandawi “Der Nationalstaat und das Militär”supra, p. 45.

  496. 496.

    Martin van Creveld “Die Zukunft des Krieges” Munich 1998, p. 94 ff, 300.

  497. 497.

    Herfried Münkler “Was ist neu an den neuen Kriegen?” Der Irak-Krieg und die Zukunft Europas, ed. by Helmut König, p. 106 et seq.

  498. 498.

    Cathleen Kantner, Sammi Sandawi “Der Nationalstaat und das Militär” Militärsoziologie – Eine Einführung, ed. by Nina Leonhard and Ines-Jaqueline Werkner, p. 45.

  499. 499.

    August Pradetto “Neue Kriege” Handbuch Militär und Sozialwissenschaft ed. by Sven Bernhard Gareis and Paul Klein, p. 194.

  500. 500.

    The term “mesoviolence” has been coined by Karl W. Haltiner “Polizisten oder Soldaten? Organisatorische Dilemmata bei der Konstabulisierung des Militärs” ÖMZ 3/2001, p. 291–298 (295).

  501. 501.

    See the proposal Drs. 16/673 of February 15th 2006 in the German Bundestag.

  502. 502.

    Arthur Costa, Mateus Medeiros “Police demilitarisation: Cops, Soldiers and Democracy”, Conflict, Security & Development 2:2 2002, p. 25–45 (27).

  503. 503.

    David H. Bayley and Tilly, C. (ed.), “The Police and Political Development in Europe”, The Formation of National States in Western Europe, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1975, p. 328.

  504. 504.

    Egon Bittner, The Functions of the Police in Modern Society: A Review of Background Factors, Current Practices, and Possible Role Models, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC 1970, p. 44.

  505. 505.

    Bayley p. 328.

  506. 506.

    Arthur Costa, Mateus Medeiros “Police demilitarisation: Cops, Soldiers and Democracy”, Conflict, Security & Development 2:2 2002, p. 25–45 (28).

  507. 507.

    Arthur Costa, Mateus Medeiros, supra, p. 28.

  508. 508.

    When speaking of ethos, differences in the specific and characteristic spirit and belief of a community or an organisation are referred to, see Arthur Costa, Mateus Medeiros, supra, p. 28 et seq.

  509. 509.

    See http://www.guardian.co.uk/brazil/story/0,,2114658,00.html, visited May 24th 2010.

  510. 510.

    Samuel Edward Finer “The Man on Horseback – The Role of the Military in Politics” New York 1962, p. 7.

  511. 511.

    Karl W. Haltiner “Polizisten oder Soldaten? Organisatorische Dilemmata bei der Konstabulisierung des Militärs”, ÖMZ 3/2001, p. 291–298 (294).

  512. 512.

    Among such exceptional cases is the initial phase of the NATO Operation prior to the Dayton Agreement 1995 or the War in Kosovo 1999.

  513. 513.

    Haltiner refers to the cases of Srebrenica in 1995 or Sierra Leone in 2000.

  514. 514.

    Samuel Edward Finer “The Man on Horseback – The Role of the Military in Politics” New York 1962, p. 7.

  515. 515.

    Cf: Larry L. Watts, Whose Professionalism?: Separating the Institutional Roles of the Military & Police, Conflict Studies Research Centre, 2001, p. 12.

  516. 516.

    See the appeal to counter crises and conflicts where they arise to keep their negative effects from Europe, Minister of Defence, Franz Josef Jung at the 23rd International Workshop on Global Security, Berlin, May 18th 2006.

  517. 517.

    Carl von Clausewitz “On War” Book VI – Defence Chapter I. 1. and 2, translated by J.J. Graham, London 1873.

  518. 518.

    Larry L. Watts “Whose Professionalism?” supra, p. 6.

  519. 519.

    Tibor Szvircsev Tresch “Europas Streitkräfte im Wandel: Von der Wehrpflichtarmee zur Freiwilligenstreitkraft. Eine empirische Untersuchung europäischer Streitkräfte 1975 bis 2003”, Dissertation Zürich 2005, p. 81.

  520. 520.

    Georg Nolte, Heike Krieger “Comparison of European Military Law Systems”, in European Military Law Systems, p. 42.

  521. 521.

    Especially NATO became increasingly involved in humanitarian operations in the early 1990s within the scope of IFOR, SFOR, KFOR and “Operation Fox” in Macedonia. Despite the prominent role of NATO in such operations, the increasing unilateralism of the USA kept NATO from playing a similar role in Afghanistan and Iraq.

  522. 522.

    Cf. VENRO Position Paper “Armed Forces as Humanitarian Aid Workers? Scope and Limits of Co-operation between Aid Organisations and Armed Forces in Humanitarian Aid”, see http://www.venro.org/fileadmin/Publikationen/Einzelveroeffentlichungen/Humanitaere_Hilfe/Position%20Paper%20Armed%20Forces%20and%20Humanitarian%20A.PDF, visited May 24th 2010.

  523. 523.

    “States of Emergency”, DCAF Backgrounder, October 2005.

  524. 524.

    Though most countries define their own provisions, international treaties such as the European Convention on Human Rights ECHR, see http://www.hri.org/docs/ECHR50.html, and the International Covenant in Civil and Political Rights ICCPR, see http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/pdf/ccpr.pdf, (all visited May 24th 2010) prescribe various basic principles.

  525. 525.

    Cf. “States of Emergency”, DCAF Backgrounder, October 2005.

  526. 526.

    This enumeration is not final, since the UN Human Rights Committee recognised additional non-derogable rights such as the humane treatment of all persons deprived of liberty; prohibition of hostage-taking and unacknowledged incarceration; protection of rights of minorities; prohibition of propaganda advocating war or national, racial, or religious hatred; procedural guarantees and safeguards to ensure the judicial system, see “States of Emergency”, DCAF Backgrounder, October 2005.

  527. 527.

    “States of Emergency”, DCAF Backgrounder, October 2005.

  528. 528.

    “States of Emergency”, DCAF Backgrounder, October 2005.

  529. 529.

    Hans Geser “Internationale Polizeiaktionen: Ein neues evolutionäres Entwicklungsstadium militärischer Organisationen?” Georg-Maria Meyer (Ed.) Friedensengel im Kampfanzug, Opladen 1996, p. 45.

  530. 530.

    It was not before the early 1600s when permanent regimes appeared in other parts of Europe, such as Italy and Spain, whereas a standing force in Prussia was created as recently as 1660.

  531. 531.

    A typical example for such an event is the Peterloo Massacre from August 16th 1819 in Manchester, Great Britain, with the result of eleven dead and about 400 wounded, see http://victorianweb.org/history/riots/peterloo.html, visited May 24th 2010.

  532. 532.

    Philip John Stead, “The Police of France”, New York, MacMillan, 1983, p. 3

  533. 533.

    Larry L. Watts, “Whose Professionalism?: Separating the Institutional Roles of the Military & Police”, Conflict Studies Research Centre, 2001, p. 13.

  534. 534.

    Also known as a preventive “Shoot-To-Kill-Order”.

  535. 535.

    Only 12 out of 16 German federal states decided to include a respective legal construct in their law on the police, arising from the attacks during the Olympic Games in Munich 1972.

  536. 536.

    In Germany, the police forces have always been closely related to the executive of the state, thus rendering a parliamentary decision prior a foreign assignment of police forces obsolete.

  537. 537.

    Sociological, this term is referred to as “microviolence”, see Karl W. Haltiner “Polizisten oder Soldaten?” supra, p. 292.

  538. 538.

    Definition as proposed by the Cambridge Dictionary, see http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/law-enforcement, visited May 24th 2010.

  539. 539.

    Cf. 18 USC Part I Chapter 12 § 232 (7).

  540. 540.

    Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials, adopted by General Assembly Resolution 34/169 of December 17th 1979.

  541. 541.

    Jürgen Storbeck “Grundzüge eines gemeinsamen beruflichen Selbstverständnisses der europäischen Polizeien” Auf dem Weg zu einer europäischen Polizei, Rolf Moiré, Manfred Murck, Rainer Schulte (eds), Stuttgart 1992, p. 220–228 (221).

  542. 542.

    Italy for instance, combines officers of the criminal police, Carabinieri and Guardia di Finanza in one drug enforcement authority.

  543. 543.

    Jürgen Storbeck “Grundzüge eines gemeinsamen beruflichen Selbstverständnisses der europäischen Polizeien” Auf dem Weg zu einer europäischen Polizei, Rolf Moiré, Manfred Murck, Rainer Schulte (eds), Stuttgart 1992, p. 220–228 (225).

  544. 544.

    An overview over past UN peace-keeping missions can be obtained through http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/index.asp, visited May 24th 2010.

  545. 545.

    The mission of UN Civilian Police for instance expanded from a mere monitoring in Namibia in 1989–1990 to reform and training in El Salvador in the years 1991–1995.

  546. 546.

    A mission comprising executive policing took place in Kosovo during the late 1990s.

  547. 547.

    Provisional examples were UNEF I in the Gaza Strip 1957 and ONUC in Congo 1964 where peacekeeping forces in effect maintained law and order.

  548. 548.

    Annika S. Hansen, “From Congo to Kosovo: Civilian Police in Peace Operations”, p. 71.

  549. 549.

    Derek Lutterbeck “Between Police and Military – The New Security Agenda and the Rise of Gendarmeries”, Cooperation and Conflict: Journal of the Nordic International Studies Association, Vol. 39 (1), p. 45–68 (47).

  550. 550.

    An exception to this rule is Ireland, where the Royal Irish Constabulary plays a similar role to the continental gendarmeries.

  551. 551.

    Derek Lutterbeck, “Between Police and Military – The New Security Agenda and the Rise of Gendarmeries”, in: Cooperation and Conflict: Journal of the Nordic International Studies Association, Vol. 39 (1) p. 51.

  552. 552.

    In 1990 alone, 200 million Euros were allocated to the Spanish Guardia Civil, creating an advanced coast control regime to impermeabilize the country’s Mediterranean border.

  553. 553.

    e.g. a doubling in size of the naval and air service of the Italian Guardia di Finanza can be noted between 1989 and 1999.

  554. 554.

    According to Lutterbeck, the defence spending in NATO countries dropped from 4.5% to 2.5% of GDP between 1989 and 2000.

  555. 555.

    Doron Zimmermann “Between Minimun Force and Maximum Violence: Combating Political Violence Movements with Third-Force Options”, The Quarterly Journal, Spring 2005, p. 43 et seq.

  556. 556.

    This expression has mainly been coined by the French and Italian Representatives of their Gendarmeries.

  557. 557.

    An example to this were the Italian Carabinieri and their independent policing in Kosovo, having being reluctant to submit to the law as it was enforced by the UN and thus being highly problematic in the context of training local police forces. Other examples are the UN Missions in Somalia, Haiti, and East Timor.

  558. 558.

    Sense of Congress reaffirming the continued importance and applicability of the Posse Comitatus Act, Title 6 Chapter 1 Subchapter VIII Part H Sec. 466, see: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/uscode06/usc_sec_06_00000466----000-.html, visited May 24th 2010.

  559. 559.

    Title 10, Chapter 15, see http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode10/

    usc_sup_01_10_10_A_20_I_30_15.html, visited May 24th 2010.

  560. 560.

    Title 42, Chapter 68, see http://www.fema.gov/pdf/about/stafford_act.pdf, visited May 24th 2010.

  561. 561.

    Annika S. Hansen, “From Congo to Kosovo: Civilian Police in Peace Operations”, p. 64.

  562. 562.

    Annika S. Hansen, “From Congo to Kosovo: Civilian Police in Peace Operations”, p. 70.

  563. 563.

    Alice Hills, “The Inherent Limits of Military Forces in Policing Peace Operations”, p. 94.

  564. 564.

    Police Act of the Republic of Slovenia, Chapter II Article 19.

  565. 565.

    Paul J. DiMaggio, Walter Powell “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields”, American Sociological Review, 48 (April), 1983, p. 147–160.

  566. 566.

    Arthur Costa, Mateus Medeiros “Police demilitarisation: Cops, Soldiers and Democracy”, Conflict, Security & Development 2:2 2002, p. 25–45, (33).

  567. 567.

    Arthur Costa, Mateus Medeiros “Police demilitarisation: Cops, Soldiers and Democracy”, Conflict, Security & Development 2:2 2002, p. 25–45, (30 ff).

  568. 568.

    The father of modern policing and founder of the British Police Forces Sir Robert Peel even appointed the army officer Colonel Charles Rowan as the first Commissioner of the London Police.

  569. 569.

    Artur Costa, Mateus Medeiros “Police demilitarisation: Cops, Soldiers and Democracy”, Conflict, Security & Development 2:2 2002, p. 25–45 (36).

  570. 570.

    Illustrating this development by the example of Brazil and the United States, see Arthur Costa, Mateus Medeiros “Police demilitarisation: Cops, Soldiers and Democracy”, Conflict, Security & Development 2:2 2002, p. 25–45 (37 et seq.).

  571. 571.

    Arthur Costa, Mateus Medeiros “Police demilitarisation: Cops, Soldiers and Democracy”, Conflict, Security & Development 2:2 2002, p. 25–45 (32).

  572. 572.

    Arthur Costa, Mateus Medeiros “Police demilitarisation: Cops, Soldiers and Democracy”, Conflict, Security & Development 2:2 2002, p. 25–45 (32).

  573. 573.

    Royal Decree of July 6th 1994, Arrêté royal portant détermination des formes d´engagement opérationnel et des activités préparatoires en vue de la mise en oeuvre des forces armées, Moniteur belge, 20 juillet 1994.

  574. 574.

    The amendment dates from August 2nd 1997.

  575. 575.

    Law of November 21st 1967.

  576. 576.

    Law of December 17th 1998.

  577. 577.

    The present White Paper (“livre blanc sur la défense”) dates from March 1994.

  578. 578.

    Derek Lutterbeck, “Between Police and Military – The New Security Agenda and the Rise of Gendarmeries”, Cooperation and Conflict: Journal of the Nordic International Studies Association, Vol. 39 (1) p. 47.

  579. 579.

    Derek Lutterbeck, “Between Police and Military – The New Security Agenda and the Rise of Gendarmeries”, in: Cooperation and Conflict: Journal of the Nordic International Studies Association, Vol. 39 (1) p. 51.

  580. 580.

    e.g. the Spanish Guardia Civil trying to provoke a coup in the year 1981.

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Lioe, K.E. (2011). A Comparative Law. In: Armed Forces in Law Enforcement Operations? - The German and European Perspective. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-15434-8_1

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