Abstract
This chapter takes an historical approach to maize research. It is focused on early studies in the archaeological and biological sciences: How did these studies indirectly influence the current debates? How were these debates directly influenced by earlier research on plant domestication in the Old World? How are the methodological approaches taken by the New World archaeologists, specialized in domestication and early agriculture, different from those taken by such specialists in the Old World? How do these differences affect the history of research on the origins and spread of maize? Recent groundbreaking results from maize geneticists have indicated that earlier archaeological interpretations of plant domestication and the economic significance of maize need to be reconsidered, yet earlier research and interpretations continue to strongly influence the current research. The term domestication has come to be used in the archaeological and biological literature as referring to a symbiotic relationship among human populations, the local ecology, a mutualism or coevolution that is not necessarily dependent on human involvement, particularly with reference to resource management. In this volume, domestication is defined as the genetic change brought about in a biotic population as a result of interactions with humans, and leads to a dependence relationship (Benz and Staller 2006, p. 665). These definitions on the process of domestication are more in line with those generally published in the biological sciences. Prior to the recent developments in direct dating and molecular biology, archaeologists and historians perceived agricultural practices surrounding primary economic cultigens in terms of a culture history. There appears to have been a general consensus with regard to the economic importance of food plants such as maize in the ancient past, in part because maize was seen as analogous to wheat and barley in the Old World.
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Notes
- 1.
Note: this is not the way it has generally been defined in the archaeological literature and to a lesser extent in the biological literature, particularly before the middle of the last century.
- 2.
- 3.
There is some reason to believe that this historical shift in theory and methodological approaches in American Anthropology may be related, at least in part, to the passing of Franz Boas in December of 1942. The Father of American Anthropology and a staunch proponent of a holistic, four-field approach to anthropological research, he trained many of the most prominent and influential scholars of their generation (Willey and Sabloff 1980, pp. 84–85, pp. 94–95).
- 4.
- 5.
The founder effect is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population (Mayr 1942, p. 120). The new population may be distinctively different as a result of the loss of genetic variation both genetically and in terms of phenotypic expression (Provine 2004).
- 6.
Cotton Mather was a Quaker, a puritan divine who condoned the persecution of “witches” but not the extreme methods of execution used by their prosecutors. Mather was aware of the effect of corn pollen from one variety falling on the silks of another and reported on this in various publications. Paul Dudley, a wealthy aristocrat, whose family were bitter enemies of the Mather clan, reported on the same phenomenon 8 years later without citing Mather’s published work (Wallace and Brown 1956, pp. 45–47). Dudley referred to pollination as “wonderful copulation” (Wallace and Brown 1956, p. 47).
- 7.
Teosinte takes its name from the Nahuat teocintli, which means good or evil grain and is used to widely refer to seven taxa of wild grasses closely related to maize (Benz 2006, p. 9).
- 8.
Mangelsdorf (1974, pp. 72–73) asserted sugarcane of the genus Saccharum can cross with Zea, producing infertile hybrids, but others consider this claim unproven (Clayton and Renvoize 1986, p. 331). However, both sugarcane and maize stalks produce sweet juice that can be easily extracted and once the sugar is concentrated, consumed in making syrup and particularly alcoholic beverages or pulque (Smalley and Blake 2003, p. 675).
- 9.
The most puzzling teosinte is Z. mays ssp. huehuetenangensis, which combines morphology rather like Z. mays ssp. parviglumis with many terminal chromosome knobs and an isozyme position between the two sections. Phenotypically, the most distinctive and the most threatened teosinte is Z. nicaraguensis, which thrives in flooded conditions along 200 meters of a coastal estuarine river in the northwest Nicaragua (Iltis 2006). There may be some questions regarding the Nicaraguan species, as geneticists do not mention it (see e.g., Matsuoka et al. 2002; Vigouroux et al. 2003).
- 10.
- 11.
Mangelsdorf et al. (1967, pp. 179–180, Fig. 97) believed that they had identified a specimen of pod corn derived from San Marcos Cave, Zones F and E, which were dated by association to 7,000 years ago (see Fig. 3.5a). Later he joked that his initials stood for “Pod Corn Maize.” Mangelsdorf continued to declare until his passing in 1989 at the age of 90, that pod corn represented the wild ancestor of maize (Fussell 1992, p. 78).
- 12.
Manisuris is teosinte now classified as Zea mays ssp. mexicana. Yoshihiro Matsuoka and his collaborators (2002:6083) have emphasized the importance of gene flow from Z. mays ssp. mexicana as contributing to the maize diversity. This subspecies grows as a weed in many highland maize fields (above 1,800–2,500 m) where it frequently hybridizes with maize, whereas Z. mays ssp. parviglumis often grows at lower elevations (below 1,800 m) and rarely hybridizes with maize (Wilkes 1967, 1977). Z. mays ssp mexicana is also adapted to lower rainfall (500–1,000 mm) than subspecies parviglumis (Pearsall and Piperno 1998, p. 161). These various factors appear to play a role in this subspecies’ role to maize diversity.
- 13.
For example, this Osage myth; “For the fourth time Buffalo threw himself upon the earth, And the speckled corn, Together with the speckled squash, He tossed into the air, Then spake, saying: “What living creature is there that has no mate?” And thus he wedded together the speckled corn, a male, to the speckled squash, a female. He continued: “The little ones shall use this plant for food as they travel the path of life. Thus they shall make for themselves to be free from all the causes of death as they travel the path of life.” (Rankin 2006, p. 563).
- 14.
Bonafous’ classical monograph “Histoire naturelle, agricole et economique du Mais”, published in 1836, makes reference to pod corn which he called Zea cryptosperma. Pod corn is currently classified as Zea mays var. tunicata Larrañaga ex A. St. Hilaire.
- 15.
All teosinte species are diploid (n = 10) except Z. perennis, which is tetraploid (n = 20). The different species and subspecies can be readily distinguished based on morphological, cytogenetic, protein and DNA differences and on geographic origin, although the two perennials are sympatric and very similar.
- 16.
- 17.
MacNeish and Eubanks (2000, p. 15) claimed that the Tehuacán cob samples AMS dated by Long et al. (1989) were contaminated by Bedacryl, a polymethyl acrylate used to preserve fragile botanical materials. The Mexican curators, however, stated emphatically that they never treated the macrobotanical remains since they arrived at the national museum in Mexico City in the early 1970s (Long and Fritz 2001, p. 88). Moreover, when Benz conducted his morphological analysis of the remains he commented to Long and Fritz that they were covered with soil and ash from the original excavation (Long and Fritz 2001).
- 18.
The fact that 2,000 b.p. maize cobs from Tularosa carried an su1 allele which occurs today in teosinte but is very rare in modern maize, suggests that the selection process at su1 was incomplete at that time making such maize unsuitable for the manufacture of tortillas. This implies that the selection for su1 starch properties occurred long after the initial domestication of maize in central Mexico.
- 19.
Maize DNA studies have shown that up to 12% of its genetic material was obtained from Zea mays ssp. mexicana through introgression or gene flow, more specifically, by backcrossing an interspecific hybrid with one of the parent species (Matsuoka et al. 2002, p. 6083).
- 20.
His sixth category, pod corn, was at the time a botanical curiosity, but one, which in later years, had a profound effect on research on maize origins and phylogeny.
- 21.
The general tendency in the archaeological and biological literature has been to assume an overall pattern of selection for more productive (larger kernels and/or more rows) Pre-Columbian landraces over time.
- 22.
Anagenesis refers to the persistence of one or a suite of biological traits that over time leads to varietal divergence. Cladogenesis refers to the development of evolutionary novelty through the extinction of pre-existing forms (Benz and Staller 2006, p. 665).
- 23.
This would explain in part the differences noted among landraces with regard to their ability to resist drought and insect infestation, and adapt to higher elevations.
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Staller, J.E. (2010). Scientific, Botanical, and Biological Research on Maize. In: Maize Cobs and Cultures: History of Zea mays L.. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04506-6_3
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